The Beginning of Western Civilization

About 2,500 years ago, when China was in the late Spring and Autumn Period, when heroes arose and hundreds of schools of thought contended, in the plains of Mesopotamia, Greek civilization also suddenly emerged. While Laozi, Confucius and Sun Tzu emerged in China, a large number of famous philosophers also emerged in Greece - Thales, Pythagoras, Democritus, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Perhaps it was just a coincidence of time, but these wise men from the East and the West created two completely different scientific systems that continue to this day.

Russell said at the beginning of his "History of Western Philosophy": "Philosophy and science are originally inseparable." In fact, these Greek philosophers were also scientists at the same time. Pythagoras was a mathematician, Democritus proposed "atomic theory", Plato studied geometry, and Aristotle was almost the founder of logic and physics. The development of Western science still inherits the philosophical thoughts of ancient Greece to this day.

Let us look at the characteristics of Western science and technology from a phenomenon.

Pythagoras has a famous saying: "Everything is number." This kind of philosophical thought has caused the entire system of Western science to be based on mathematics. When Newton wrote "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", the supreme status of mathematics became even more unshakable. Going back to the ancient Greek times, Euclid synthesized Plato's geometric principles and Aristotle's logic and wrote it without any major changes for more than two thousand years. It is still the geometry textbook in our middle schools today. Works - "Elements of Geometry". Starting from 23 definitions, 5 axioms and 5 postulates, this book derived 467 theorems. The basic idea is that if the axiom itself is correct and the reasoning process is correct, then the conclusion must also be correct. As for why the axiom itself is correct, ancient Greek philosophers believed that no proof was needed in this regard. When some modern people around us laugh at the Buddhist disciples' devout belief in the Buddha, I wonder if they have ever thought that the cornerstone of the scientism they believe in is actually something that is unproven and cannot be proven.

The source of axioms is human observation. In fact, we can never guarantee that our observations truly reflect the original appearance of the objective world. For example, there are many celestial bodies in this universe that do not emit light and emit electromagnetic waves that are invisible to the naked eye. However, people's inability to see their existence does not mean that they do not exist. And when humans use various telescopes to convert the electromagnetic waves they emit into visible light, what we actually see is the projection of that planet in the visible light spectrum range. This is like a TV that can only recognize black and white. Even if it receives a color signal, it still has to convert the signal into different grayscales. We only observe the projection of color on black and white, which is of course not the real situation of the objective world. Maybe the same is true for the axioms. Due to some more basic factors, the axioms seem to be established and eternal. The axioms we see are just the projection of those more basic factors on the observable world. As long as those more basic factors are If the factors change slightly, the axioms and the entire Western scientific system established on them will need to be significantly revised or even collapse. The move from Newton's classical mechanics to Einstein's theory of relativity may be one of the less dramatic changes.

Renaissance

Let us jump out of the discussion that seemed to be in the philosophical category and look at the history of the development of Western science. In the third century BC, ancient Greece was conquered by the Roman Empire. From that time until the fourteenth century AD, the civilization of ancient Greece not only failed to develop, but was almost completely destroyed. At the beginning of the fourth century AD, Christianity became the Roman state religion after three hundred years of persecution. From then on, for nearly 1,000 years, Europe was in a period of absolute rule by the church in the Middle Ages. At the end of the fourteenth century, the Ottoman Empire invaded Eastern Rome. Many scholars fled to Western Europe for refuge, taking with them a large number of ancient Greek and Roman art treasures and books on literature, history, philosophy, etc. This gave Western Europeans the opportunity to understand the glorious civilization and artistic achievements of ancient Greece. A surging wave of "Greek fever" quickly swept across Western Europe. With Florence as the center, the culture of ancient Greece and Rome was restored and developed. This is history. the famous "Renaissance".

The Renaissance was actually the revival of ancient Greek philosophical thought. In the following short period of about 500 years, Western science and technology developed by leaps and bounds, and a large number of scientists, artists and philosophers once again emerged. Such as Dante, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Shakespeare, Bacon, Descartes, Newton, Leibniz, Einstein, Heisenberg and so on.

Mathematics and astronomy have made great progress. For example, Descartes founded analytic geometry, Newton and Leibniz independently studied calculus, and Kepler and Newton made extraordinary achievements in astronomy. . These scientific developments can be said to be a revolution in ancient Greek civilization in terms of scale and extent, but in their essence they still inherit the philosophical ideas of ancient Greece - observation, induction axioms and logical reasoning. Even the theory of relativity, which symbolizes the pinnacle of modern science, is no exception: because the theory of relativity takes "the speed of light to be constant" and "relativity" as axiom premises that do not require proof. In other words, as long as one of these two premises is overturned, the theory of relativity will become a castle in the air.

Breakthroughs in Matter and Energy

Until nearly 350 years after the "Renaissance", the entire scientific system has not interfered with human life, but basically acted as an independent The system is evolving. However, at the end of the 18th century, Western civilization suddenly underwent earth-shaking changes. The cause was the invention of the steam engine by a man named Watt.

Before Watt invented the steam engine, all textile mills were built in valleys, using the mechanical energy generated by water flowing down from the mountains to drive the operation of textile machines. The invention of the steam engine was the first time that humans had mastered converting thermal energy into mechanical energy. From then on, textile factories could be built in cities. Human civilization also began to transform from factory handicraft industry to large-scale machine industry, and the "Industrial Revolution" officially began. In 1807, American Fulton installed a steam engine on a ship, ending the era of sailing ships in shipping. In 1814, the Englishman Stephen installed a steam engine on a train, ushering in a new era of land transportation. By the 1830s and 1840s, steam engines had been widely used in Europe and North America. This was the so-called "steam age."

In 1831, Faraday discovered that when a closed coil cuts magnetic lines of force, it will An induced current is generated in the coil. This is also the first time that humans have mastered the conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy, announcing the arrival of the "Electrical Age".

At the same time, some epoch-making events also occurred in the history of Western chemistry. In 1808, the English chemist Dalton published "A New System of Chemical Philosophy", proposing the theory that atoms are the smallest particles in chemical reactions. The study of the chemical properties of atoms led the Soviet scientist Mendeleev to create the periodic table of elements in February 1869.

Perhaps we can take a look at the following simple example as to why these new discoveries in physics and chemistry have epoch-making significance for the advancement of human civilization.

Everyone knows that trees can make paper, and they think it is a simple thing. However, if you think about it, you will find that the reason behind it is very profound. This process involves two aspects at the same time: First, people We must realize that the basic ingredients that make up trees and paper are the same, that is, fibers. This is the understanding of matter; and the energy we have must be able to return trees into fibers and proceed in the order of fiber arrangement in paper. Arrange them to create paper. This example is basically a physical change, that is, it does not change the structure of the molecule, but only changes the arrangement program of the molecules. If we have a deeper grasp of matter and energy, it is chemical change, which changes the arrangement program of atoms. For example, we can use petroleum to make rubber, asphalt, plastic, etc.

Every time we take a step deeper into the exploration of matter and the mastery of energy, great changes will occur in people's lives. The steam age and the electronic age came simply because humans mastered a transformation of energy. The development of chemistry allowed humans to invent synthetic materials. The invention of the computer is not so much a scientific progress as a technological progress, because mathematical logic was founded by Brin as early as the mid-19th century. The evolution from electron tubes to transistors to integrated circuits is nothing more than mankind's recognition of the semiconductor. It’s just a characteristic of a substance.

Leap and Dilemma in Physics

Since the beginning of the 20th century, there has been a great leap in physics. A group of energetic young people began to explore the microscopic world below atoms. Einstein proposed the theory of relativity applicable to the microscopic world, Bohr drew the structural diagram of the atom, Planck proposed the viewpoint of quantum mechanics, and Heisenberg proved the uncertainty principle. Every major discovery is a huge impact on mature classical physics theory and space-time view.

The explosion of the first atomic bomb not only verified Einstein's equations about the relationship between the mass and energy of matter, but also showed people the huge energy of the microscopic world. However, more than sixty years have passed, and human science has struggled to make breakthroughs in understanding matter and mastering energy. Imagine that according to modern scientific understanding, the basic particles that make up an atom are nothing more than protons, neutrons and electrons. If we have such a big pot, we can boil all matter into "elementary particle porridge", and then arrange these elementary particles as we want according to our needs, we can turn stones into gold, and turn all decay into magic, and just like Trees are as convenient as making paper.

Of course, the actual situation is by no means that simple. The energy required to simply break atoms into elementary particles is equivalent to the explosion of an atomic bomb. For humans who can only skillfully use mechanical energy or chemical energy, such a large amount of energy is like an ant trying to lift a big tree. On the other hand, humans know very little about the forces and behavioral characteristics between particles in the microscopic world. How can they manipulate and arrange particles as they wish that cannot be seen with the largest microscope at present?

Things are far from over here. In 1927, Heisenberg discovered the "uncertainty" principle, that is, the position and momentum of microscopic particles cannot be accurately measured at the same time. Therefore, quantum mechanics has to show randomness, that is, the movement of particles is random: under the same conditions , there can be completely different results. This theory overturns the emphasis on causality in traditional science and traditional philosophy. Then, Bohr and Heisenberg jointly studied the principle of covariance, that is, the things observed by scientists observing in the microscopic field are related to the observer's concepts and observation methods.

This breaks another basic belief of Western science: there is an objective world that is independent of the observer.

The superstring field theory proposed by particle physicists not long ago believes that the basic particle is composed of a string with a length of 1.66*10^-33 centimeters. If you want to break this string, it will take 10^ 19 electron volts, this energy is equivalent to 10 billion times the fission of an atomic nucleus. Human beings have to look at this astronomical amount of energy and do nothing.

Converting a Philosophy

At the end of the 19th century, the entirety of classical physics—from Newton's classical mechanics to Maxwell's electromagnetic theory—had become quite complete. Scientists believe that the splendid edifice of physics is complete, and that all that remains is some tinkering. Even Lord Kelvin, a recognized authority in physics, said at the annual physics meeting at that time: "The truth of physics in the future will have to be found in the sixth decimal place."

However, two At the beginning of the 10th century, two major breakthroughs in physics—the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics—opened up a whole new field. In 1905, Einstein published "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", proposing the theory of relativity for the first time. What is unique is that in this article, Einstein did not cite any previous scientific documents, but created it entirely in accordance with his own philosophical and scientific thoughts. Einstein was deeply influenced by the philosophical thoughts of Spinoza and Mach. He himself said many times: "It is better to say that I am a philosopher than a physicist." Heisenberg, one of the leading figures in quantum mechanics, was also a philosopher and the author of the book "Physics and Philosophy". Verduran said in the preface to "History of Western Philosophy": "All sciences begin with philosophy...Science can only impart knowledge, and only philosophy can give wisdom." It is no exaggeration to say that the twentieth century A breakthrough in physics is actually a breakthrough in philosophy.

The special theory of relativity breaks the concept of absolute space and time in ancient philosophy. The change of speed (the movement of the observer) makes time flexible, and the concept of "now" is not absolute. For example, the famous "twin effect": an astronaut returns to Earth after sailing at high speed for several years and becomes younger than his twin brother who stayed on Earth. In 1915, Einstein completed his general theory of relativity. The curvature of space-time that breaks the speed of light limit may even cause time to go back. Theoretically, people can go to the past or back to the future.

Quantum mechanics breaks people's belief that there is an "objective" world and turns science into "metaphysics" again. Western science is based on observation, induction and verification. If the first step is "uncertain" and people have different opinions, then of course the subsequent induction and verification will completely lose the foundation. If we continue to develop into the microscopic world, Western science will have no way to go.

The shortcomings and solutions of Western science

In the early days of the Renaissance, even great scientists like Newton still feared God. Just when scientific research reached its peak, Newton turned to the Bible and said: "This most beautiful system of suns, planets, and comets can only be derived from the plan and arrangement of a meta-intelligent and omnipotent God. "Produced through control." People also discovered that nature is so harmonious and magnificent, and its exquisite composition makes people suspect that the Creator is actually the greatest mathematician.

However, the days of harmonious coexistence between man and nature are gradually fading away with the development of science. The brilliant achievements in science have dazzled mankind's minds, and people who have only a little understanding of nature have begun to become arrogant. Kant said: "Give me matter, and I will use it to create a universe." Laplace said to Napoleon: "Your Majesty, I don't need God."

Nietzsche declared : "God is dead". The natural world was not created by God, so we do not need to revere or cherish it. We can "exploit", "conquer" and "transform" it at will. This has become the philosophy of many modern people. The emergence of the theory of evolution further pushed people away from God.

One of the guiding principles of Western science is to separate the object under study from the environment and then abstract it. Therefore, the result is usually that the interaction between the object and the environment is not considered, and the operation of the object is abandoned. impact on the environment. At present, the air pollution, greenhouse effect, El Ni?o, deforestation, soil erosion and desertification we see are all the consequences of modern humans using this kind of thinking and scientific means to "transform nature".

Without the eternal Creator and the ultimate judge of good and evil standards, whoever has energy and power can do whatever they want. This kind of thinking not only causes human moral disaster, but also causes ecological disaster. American scientist Lester Brown wrote this thought-provoking sentence on the title page of one of his books: "We do not inherit the earth from our fathers, but borrow it from our children and grandchildren."

Facing Modern Times Perhaps we must change our thinking and seek answers to the dilemmas and shortcomings of science from China's grand and profound Eastern philosophy system.