There has always been a dispute between the Poussin School and the Rubens School in the history of French art.
Simon Schama compared Poussin and Rubens in the book "The Power of Art": "Poussin is rock, Rubens is body; Poussin is critical , Rubens is a singer; Poussin is an ascetic, Rubens is a sensualist; Poussin uses colors sparingly, Rubens is extravagant; Poussin has strong lines, while Rubens is full of curves and plumpness The juicy flesh lay everywhere."
Jiang Xun summarized Rubens in his "History of Western Art for Everyone": "Rubens used his outstanding artistic talent to deal with the kings and nobles. During this time, he painted portraits of them and rendered magnificent and magnificent deeds in their lives. He used exquisite and delicate oil painting techniques to create rich and gorgeous pictures. Even religious themes such as "Christ descending from the cross" should be full of pathos and suffering. Love was also treated by Rubens to make it purely visually pleasing. Rubens had no worries about food and clothing throughout his life, lived in the mansions of princes, generals and ministers, and was pampered; he even had many disciples and assistants to help him handle his busy business. He was the most successful example of Rubens in the history of European art. , healthy and bright, there is no sadness or darkness in his world, nor is there frustration or sentimentality. He creates an extremely plump female physical beauty, showing strong vitality and pursuit of a happy life with a plump and white body. ”
Regarding the dispute between the Poussin school and the Rubens school, a simple and superficial understanding is that Poussin emphasized sketching, while Rubens emphasized color; a more profound understanding admits that the two masters were both good at sketching and color. To achieve perfection, the difference is that Poussin prefers to meditate on philosophy and is a master of classical tradition, while Rubens is passionate and unrestrained, and is the "king of Baroque painting".
If we do not consider Rubens's life and the era he lived in, but only look at his works, then it is indeed easy for us to agree with the views on Rubens listed above. However, once we connect his works with his life and the era in which he lived, we will find a different Rubens and have a different understanding of Rubens's works, especially Rubens The unique "plump and white flesh" in the pen does not just "show strong vitality and the pursuit of a happy life", but contains a deeper and longer meaning.
Rubens (1577-1640) was a native of the Netherlands; there was a historical event that completely covered Rubens's life in terms of time span, and that was the Dutch War of Independence that took place in the Netherlands. Also known as the "Eighty Years' War" (1568-1648). Except for 1609 to 1621, when the warring parties temporarily maintained peace according to the armistice agreement, the Netherlands has been devastated by war, famine, plague, mutiny, religious persecution, political disputes, trade blockades, etc. At the same time, other parts of Europe were not at peace either. Large and small religious persecutions and wars occurred one after another. The "Thirty Years' War" from 1618 to 1648 involved most countries on the European continent into cruel and protracted wars. middle. From a more macro perspective, that was when the "Little Ice Age in the late Ming Dynasty" ravaged the northern hemisphere. Extremely cold weather, agricultural failure, and plague (Black Death) lingered. The extremely harsh living environment stimulated and amplified the defects in human nature. Brutal and savage.
Rubens’s world is definitely not “without sadness or darkness, nor frustration or sentimentality”: in 1568, Rubens’ parents gave up their comfortable life and fled their hometown, the Netherlands, to escape religious persecution. in Antwerp; in 1587, when Rubens was about ten years old, his father Jan Rubens died in Cologne, Germany; in 1608, Rubens's mother died in Antwerp; in 1611, Rubens, who was very close to Rubens His brother Philip died young at the age of 37; in 1623, Rubens's daughter Clara Selena died at the age of 12; in 1626, Rubens's wife, 35-year-old Isabella Bland Rubens, who had always loved painting, was so sad that he died of the plague and stopped writing for more than a year; in 1630, although Rubens promoted the peace treaty between Britain and Spain as the Spanish envoy, Rubens The originally planned peace between the Northern and Southern Netherlands brought about by the Anglo-Spanish alliance did not occur, and wars and military blockades continued; in 1633, Rubens's friend and patron, the benevolent ruler of the Spanish Netherlands, Isa Grand Duchess Bella died, and the last hope for peace was shattered; in 1635, Rubens suffered from gout and had to rest in bed; on May 31, 1640, Rubens died of "malarial fever and gout that lasted for several days. heart strain”.
Therefore, Rubens, like many of his contemporaries, experienced terrible sadness and darkness, and after experiencing a lot, his works are still tenaciously full of vitality and enthusiasm. This makes people marvel and wonder, what kind of life philosophy supports Rubens's spiritual world, which never gets swallowed up by darkness and always maintains abundant sunshine? What is the meaning of those bright and plump bodies?
In the three paintings above, there are respectively Rubens’s lost wife Isabella, his beloved daughter Clara and his brother Philip (a man sitting, holding a pen in his hand, looking at the viewer) .
In this painting called "Lipsius and His Students", standing respectfully next to Philip is Rubens himself; that is to say, Rubens thinks he He was a student of Lipsius, and his philosophy of life came largely from Lipsius's teachings. So who was this teacher named Lipsius who sat next to Philip? His full name was Justus Lipsius (1547-1606), a Dutch humanist and professor at the University of Leuven; he was called by his contemporary French thinker Montaigne (1533-1592) "The most learned man of our time." Lipsius compiled and compiled the works of Seneca and Tacitus in ancient Rome, combining Stoic philosophy, "Tacitianism", skepticism and Christian teachings to provide guidance to people struggling in turmoil and unrest. Offers a new worldview, referred to as "Neo-Stoicism". “Neo-Stoicism” gave elite intellectuals access to philosophical solace and practical solutions. This made Lipsius "the most widely read and influential thinker of that era"; his ideas influenced the Rubens brothers (Philip was considered Lipsius's favorite student), as well as the later philosophers Spencer Nosa and Hobbes. There is a Justus Lipsius Building at the EU headquarters in Brussels, which is named after him.
What is Neo-Stoicism? What kind of philosophy of life does it mean to Rubens? Before answering these two questions, let us first understand Seneca and Tacitus. By the way, the sculpture behind the vase of tulips in "Lipsius and His Pupils" is the bust of Seneca. In Rubens' studio, the most conspicuous and important place is the bust of Seneca; to the left and right of Seneca are statues of Athena and Hermes, the former being the goddess of wisdom. And the patron saint of art, the latter is the god of eloquence and the patron saint of painters and diplomats; it can be seen that Seneca's status in Rubens's heart.
Seneca (approximately 4 BC - 65 AD), a Stoic philosopher, politician, tragedy writer, ororist, who served as the leader of Tiberius, Caligula, and Claude He served as an official during the reigns of four Roman emperors, Dius and Nero, and served successively as the imperial accountant, senator, consul, and tutor and advisor to Emperor Nero.
He wrote prolifically throughout his life, and his articles on Stoic philosophy include "12 talks and essays on morality, 124 essays and essays included in "Moral Letters" and "Natural Problems", and 9 tragedies and other literary works. "In the history of Western culture, Seneca's status is a bit like Wang Yangming in Chinese culture ("not moving" happens to be the similarity between Stoicism and Yangming's philosophy of mind).
Seneca (and typical Stoics) believed that happiness can be sought through wisdom, which here refers to "a kind of control over things within human power" , the wisdom of accepting helpless things with a graceful accommodation.”
Why should you do this? The metaphysical basis of Stoicism is that both the world and people contain part of the entity of God, "God is in everything", God is the soul of the world, and everyone's soul is part of God; in this way, individual People and things are connected into a whole through the divine unity, and all things and people are under the control of God, and all things will inevitably happen the way they should, whether we accept it or not. "All people are citizens of the same human body." The process of the world is like a grand drama. God is the author and director of the drama. He determines the development of the plot, and he also determines everyone's role. All are actors in the same drama. Therefore, "Human wisdom consists in recognizing what our role is in this drama and playing it well."
Seneca has some well-known quotes, such as:
"Life is like a script: what matters is not the length, but the splendor of the performance";
"Youth is not a period of life, but a state of the soul";
"If a person does not know where he is going, then any wind is not a favorable wind";
"There is no art more difficult than life, because other arts and knowledge can be found everywhere. "Ideal teacher";
"If you are willing, fate will lead you; if you are not willing, fate will drag you along."
In his later years, Seneca relied on his wisdom and experience to offset the chaos and destruction caused by the tyrant Nero and maintain the operation of the Roman Empire. In AD 65, Nero's perverse behavior aroused resistance from many people, and Nero himself fell into hysterical suspicion and panic. Seneca's nephew, the poet Lucan, failed in his attempt to assassinate Nero. The suspicious Nero believed that Seneca was involved in planning the murder and allowed him to commit suicide. According to the records of the ancient Roman historian Tacitus, Seneca saw his relatives and friends crying, so he "asked them where their philosophy was, where was the calm spirit that they had encouraged each other for so many years," and then , he calmly cut his own veins and ended his life. Rubens painted an oil painting called "The Death of Seneca" around 1614 to commemorate the old philosopher who died heroically. Stoicism was founded by Zeno (334 B.C.-262 B.C.) of Chedion, who at a young age was "inspired by the ethical teachings and life of Socrates, who faced death calmly and fearlessly." ." At the end of his life, Seneca lived out his own philosophy of life. Like Socrates, he controlled his emotions extremely well in the face of death, providing a model for Stoicism.
The historian Tacitus (55-120 AD) who provided written records of Seneca’s death was also a figure that Rubens loved very much. According to Otto Sperling, the Danish court physician who visited Rubens's studio, Rubens "would have the actor read Tacitus' history book non-stop - like background music - while dictating letters to his secretary. . And all this did not delay him from greeting guests enthusiastically, answering questions, or stopping his work for a moment. "Lipsius quoted a large number of Tacitus's quotations in "Six Treatises on Politics" published in 1589. Tian called it "a masterpiece of erudition that involved painstaking efforts".
Tacitus inherited and developed Livy’s Roman historical tradition and achievements, and is considered the greatest historian of ancient Rome.
If Li Wei, the author of "The History of Rome since the Founding of the City", is compared to Zuo Qiuming, who wrote "Zuo Shi Chun Qiu", then Tacitus is equivalent to Sima Qian in the field of Roman history. The "History" and "Chronicle" written by Tacitus start from 14 AD (the death of Augustus and the succession of Tiberius) to 96 AD (the death of Domitian), roughly recording the AD History of the Roman Empire in the 1st century.
Tacitus's historical achievements are reflected in three aspects: objectively recording historical facts, clearly expressing his views on love and hate, and concise, flexible and elegant writing style. When recording historical facts, he maintained the consciousness of "neither resentment nor partiality, detached himself from others, and rejected all bad motives of that kind", making his works highly authentic and credible. When expressing personal opinions, just like Sima Qian's "Tai Shi Gong Yue" in "Historical Records", he spoke directly from his heart, very naturally showing his hatred of corruption, ugliness and hypocrisy, and his praise of loyalty, friendship and bravery. The literary achievements of Tacitus's works are quite high. Historians from later generations commented on him that "in terms of portraying characters, Tacitus is unrivaled in ancient and modern times." In addition, Tacitus' aphorisms are concise and concise. Deep and widely recited by future generations. Montaigne praised Tacitus's "Annals" as "a book for study and study, full of aphorisms... a nursery of ethical and political opinions."
European courts and elite intellectuals have always attached great importance to the history of ancient Rome, because ancient Rome, which once turned the Mediterranean Sea into its own inner lake, not only provides reference for civilized, martial arts and political power, but is also a treasure trove of literature, culture and civilization. Among them, the works of Tacitus are definitely the first choice. Tacitus was neither a philosopher nor a political scientist. He himself did not propose "Tacitianism" (just like Machiavelli himself did not propose "Machiavellianism", and the irony is that every The first thing a Machiavellian does is to criticize Machiavellianism).
"Tacitianism" emerged because monarchs, ministers, popes, bishops and cultural elites of all ages have been studying Tacitus' historical works. The identity, status and motivation of the learners are different, so they can be divided into "black Tacitus" (for example, despots learn how to play power) and "red Tacitus" (for example, pacifists learn how to play politics). resistance to tyranny) and “pink Tacitanism” (for example, political elites learn how to find ways to survive under dangerous tyranny).
The general environment faced by European intellectuals in the 16th and 17th centuries was the enduring confrontation between Christian nations, religious strife, political darkness and social injustice. Neither scholasticism nor ancient Greek and Roman philosophy could effectively provide spiritual of comfort and realistic solutions. The intellectual elite desperately needed a new philosophy that was harmonious with Christian teachings. Lipsius fulfilled this need, and his great contribution lay in the integration of Stoic philosophy, Tacitianism, skepticism and Christian doctrine: replacing the "nature god" in Stoic philosophy with the Christian God, religious fanaticism Be suspicious of demagoguery, advocate caution in the undercurrent of political whirlpool, and not put yourself at risk, but do not join in the trend. In this way, Lipsius laid the foundation for the philosophy of Neo-Stoicism, which is the recognition that evil things such as war, plague, religious persecution, and tyrants are part of the human condition and part of God's plan to redeem the entire world. , "Everything that is destined happens by necessity." Therefore, we must take "indifferent detachment" as the most important virtue, use reason and cultivate beautiful emotions, and rely on patience, perseverance, perseverance and complete obedience to God's will to survive. Overcoming difficulties and pain, and making it possible to achieve a happy life in a decadent and chaotic world.
Neo-Stoicism was the philosophy of life that Rubens pursued throughout his life. It also allowed him to become close friends with elites who shared the same beliefs and establish very deep friendships. It is this philosophy of life, coupled with his sound and complete personality and cheerful and outgoing character, that makes Rubens a person who is both open-minded and enterprising, profound and passionate. It also enables Rubens to maximize his potential. artistic talent, academic accomplishment, communication skills, business acumen and organizational talents.
Rubens not only overcame difficulties and pain, and achieved a happy life in a decadent and troubled world, but his success and happiness reached a dizzying height. His works are always filled with exciting vitality and enthusiasm, so much so that Many people mistakenly believe that there was "no sadness or darkness, no frustration or sentimentality" in his life. In troubled times, Rubens also lost relatives and suffered setbacks. He just did not let himself be immersed in darkness and sentimentality for a long time, and relied on the wisdom brought by Christian faith and Neo-Stoic philosophy time and time again. Indifferent, detached, perseverance and tenacity can heal the pain and start again.
When mentioning Rubens’s works, many people’s instinctive reaction is the beauty of the plump and white female body; in addition to “showing strong vitality and the pursuit of a happy life”, this plump and white beauty also There is hope for peace. The one that best reflects this is undoubtedly the "Allegory of Peace" that Rubens dedicated to King Charles I of England when he was on a mission to London in 1630.
In the center of the picture, a plump and fair-skinned woman who symbolizes "peace" (according to iconography, it should be Venus, the goddess of love) is nurturing a baby; beside her, the goddess of wisdom wearing a helmet, Neva (Athena) is struggling to drive away the heavily armed god of war Mars and his associates the Furies. In the distant sky, the bat-shaped black shadow symbolizes the plague that accompanies war; Cupid is about to put an olive crown on "Peace", and the snake staff he holds in his other hand symbolizes healing. Children flee from the shadow of war to "peace"; a satyr with a leg of mutton takes out fresh fruits from a cup of abundance; a leopard lies on the ground and plays with the vines playfully; a beautiful woman holding a tambourine symbolizes art and entertainment , another beauty, holds a golden basin filled with pearls and gold vessels, symbolizing wealth.
The plump and white goddess of love, Venus, who symbolizes peace, is in sharp contrast with the dark and thin goddess of revenge; the goddess of wisdom, Minerva, pushes away the reckless god of war, Mars; this is what Rubens is like Use vivid painting language to express your love for peace. His teacher Lipsius used wise words to advise kings to end the war through peace treaties, because "winning the war is only more glorious, not necessarily more advantageous. It is better to adopt a wise and restrained approach. Because victory will It will bring many misfortunes, and tyranny will follow, so be careful."
Danna has a passage in "Philosophy of Art: Painting in the Netherlands" describing the Netherlands12. The tragic situation before the armistice in 2008:
We must look at the details of the war to understand the contrast between before and after the war. Under Charles V, 50,000 people were martyred for religion; 18,000 people were executed by the Duke of Alba; then, the people rebelled and fought for 13 years. The Spaniards besieged major cities for a long time and had to starve them of food before they could capture them. At the beginning of the war, Antwerp was besieged for three days, 7,000 bourgeoisie were killed and 500 houses were burned. The soldiers collected their pay on the spot; we see in the prints from that time that they went on a lawless rampage, ransacking homes, torturing men, humiliating women, and loading boxes and cages of furniture away on trucks. When the military pay was in arrears for too long, the soldiers were stationed in the city; it was simply a world of bandits; they supported leaders and went to the countryside to do whatever they wanted. Karel van Mandel, who wrote a biography of the painter, returned to the village one day and found that his home and other people's homes had been robbed; all the bedding on the bed of his old and sick father was taken away. Carrer himself was stripped naked and had a rope around his neck about to be hanged. Fortunately, a cavalryman he knew in Italy saved him. Another time, he and his wife took a baby on the road. Money, luggage, clothes, the woman's clothes, and the baby's swaddling clothes were all robbed; the mother only had a short skirt, the baby only had a torn net, and Karel only had A piece of old tattered cloth covered the body; this was how they were dressed when they arrived in Bruges. A place in such a situation can only be destroyed; even the soldiers were starving to death. The Duke of Parma wrote to Philip II that if help did not come, the army would be doomed: "Because after all, you cannot live without food."
”
In seventeenth-century Europe, where war, famine and plague were raging, peace was precious, being well-fed was happiness, and women were beautiful if they were white and fat (partly because it implied higher social status and quality of life). The vast majority of human beings in the 21st century have never experienced famine, and there is an abundant supply of high-fat and high-calorie food. If they work overtime, have no time to exercise, and have no money to go on vacation to bask in the sun, they will become fat in vain; If you have money and leisure, you can often go to the beach to bask in the sun and go to the gym, and you will be dark and slim (this is considered beautiful, partly because it implies a higher social status and quality of life)
Then why are the well-proportioned Venuses painted by Botticelli, Raphael and Titian still in line with the public’s aesthetic vision today? This is the difference in aesthetic pursuit between Italian painting and Dutch painting: Italian painting Based on the ancient Greek human body beauty, it is further idealized and beautified, striving to express the perfect human body; Dutch painting is dedicated to depicting the natural and real beauty in real life, including landscape, folklore, still life and human body. The women are depicted as plump because this was his personal view of femininity and because this was the traditional Flemish understanding of beauty in the first half of the 17th century. ”
Rubens was the master and innovator of painting art in the seventeenth century. He mastered the essence of classical plastic art and Renaissance Italian painting (Florentine sketches, Venetian colors), and also absorbed The advantages of Karachi and Caravaggio, while carrying forward the natural and realistic tradition of Dutch painting, finally created its own unique vivid painting language.
In this artistic pursuit process, it is particularly worthy of attention. What is remarkable is that Rubens made a large number of sketches and copies of classical sculptures and famous Renaissance paintings (especially Titian's works), and he had been "buying copies of Renaissance art" and "looking at them in his spare time." "Form and composition, make any changes he thinks are appropriate." These changes are often just a few strokes, but they can inject a vivid sense of life into the picture. Persisting in doing so for a long time brought two particularly big benefits to Rubens: 1. He established an extremely large high-quality visual material library, which made it easier for him to find inspiration or use material resources when creating; secondly, Rubens often conceived his own ideas, made drafts, and then asked many apprentices and assistants to At the end of the painting, he would revise, polish and finalize it himself; at this stage of revision, polish and finalization, Rubens could use the skill of "turning decay into magic" that he had developed over many years to inject texture and life into the work.
Rubens left more than 3,000 works with extremely rich themes. These great works are filled with his love and enthusiasm for life, and reflect his observation and discovery of nature, and his dynamic emotions. Structure and shape, passionate color expression, strong contrast between light and dark, and subtle harmony of light and shadow; they had a huge impact on many French painting masters: first, the representatives of the Rococo style Watteau and Boucher; and then the Romantic masters Delacroix and Géricault; and later the impressionist master Renoir. Delacroix often mentioned Rubens in his diary: "He dominates you and conquers you with his extraordinary free spirit and innovative courage. "Renoir once declared after completing "The Bathing Lady": "Rubens would have been very satisfied if he had seen this painting! ”
Christine Belkin, an expert on Rubens-related fields, brilliantly presents “a man as an artist, collector, diplomat, classical scholar and successful businessman” in the book "Rubens" The multi-faceted Rubens." Finally, Belkin gave the following conclusion:
"In short, painters, art critics and modern art historians have always spoken highly of Rubens. This is no accident. . Painters were astonished by his ability to breathe life into his representations, his creativity, and the sheer volume of his works; art historians admired his creative abilities, his intelligence, and his erudition. Precisely because they understood the traditions of painting, they appreciated Rubens's practice of those traditions—and he did so with dexterity, sincerity, and creativity.
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Danner said, "There is only one Rubens in Flanders, just as there is only one Shakespeare in England. No matter how great the other painters are, they always lack part of their genius. "
Rubens's friend, French scholar, archaeologist and antiquities research expert, Peresque declared: "I think there is no more lovely soul in the world than Mr. Rubens. ”
The more you know Rubens, the more you will agree with Peresque.