Aristotle, Ptolemy, Pythagoras, Euclid, Eratosthenes, Archimedes

Fifth century to tenth century AD The fifth century is known as the "Dark Middle Ages". This was a period when the Christian church was dominant, the classical culture of ancient Greece and Rome declined, and Europe entered an era in which theology ruled everything. The medieval Christian theological worldview believed that humans are born sinful. According to the doctrine of "original sin", human ancestors Adam and Eve lived in paradise and lived a beautiful and happy life. However, they were punished by God for eating forbidden fruit. He was expelled from paradise and fell into the eternal world. Therefore, people are sinful in this life. Only by turning to the church, repenting and praying to seek God's favor and be saved from sin can they enter heaven after death. God dominates everything, and man is worthless. Man is God’s slave and God’s lamb, and can only obey God’s mercy. In those days, science was considered an insult to God, and all learning was "owned" by the priests, and all wisdom was "concentrated" in the Bible. In this era, as Engels pointed out: "Science is only the humble handmaiden of the church. It must not exceed the boundaries set by religious beliefs." The church used its privileges to suppress all "heresies." According to statistics, about five million people were sentenced to death in various European countries during the Middle Ages, many of whom were natural scientists. Therefore, during this period, the development of science was extremely slow, and in some fields even regressed compared with ancient science.

“In Italy, capitalist production developed earliest, and serfdom relations also collapsed first.” (Marx, Volume 1 of Capital) So the Renaissance movement first started in Italy. Florence, the "cradle of the Renaissance", has become the center of the bourgeois new cultural movement since the 14th century. During the reign of Cosimo of the Medici family (1434-1464) and later the reign of Rossosso (1469-1492), Florence experienced unprecedented economic and cultural prosperity, becoming a bright light in the "dark" medieval Europe. At that time, the New Culture Movement in Italy and Florence was under the banner of "reviving" ancient Greek and Roman culture, and pointed its finger directly at the theocracy of the church. The bourgeoisie, which has just stepped onto the stage of history, does not yet have a mature and complete ideological system. To fight against the power of medieval Christian theology, it must have powerful ideological weapons. They believe that this weapon is the secular and rational ancient Greco-Roman culture. Although these classical cultures were rejected by the Christian church in the Middle Ages, denounced as heresies, and imprisoned for thousands of years, emerging bourgeois thinkers still restored their glory.

In the cultural circles of Florence, Italy, "humanism" has also become a weapon to challenge theology. Humanists quoted the famous saying of the ancient Greek philosopher Protagoras: "Man is the measure of all things." They advocated respect for nature and human rights and opposed asceticism; they advocated science and culture and opposed superstition. They pull people from the world of God back to the real world of man. They praise people, praise life and nature, and advocate science and reason. Under the guidance of humanistic ideas, both social sciences and natural sciences have developed, giving rise to modern realist literature and art, modern natural sciences based on experimental methods, new materialist philosophy, political science, history and education, etc. A large number of versatile and knowledgeable giants were produced. These giants held high the banner of humanism and launched a fierce attack on feudal despotism and Christian theology, thereby writing a new chapter in the history of human culture.

2. The Liberation of Natural Sciences

The Renaissance was an era of active thinking that was conducive to bold innovation. The great geographical discoveries of Columbus, Magellan and da Gama; the artistic innovations of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael were all completed in this era. After the dark night of the Middle Ages, science suddenly re-emerged with unexpected power and developed at a miraculous speed. Among them, the major discoveries in astronomy made by scientific giants such as Copernicus, Bruno, Galileo, Kepler and Newton are especially represented and pioneered.

In Copernicus's time, Ptolemy's "geocentric theory" was dominant in Europe. The medieval church deified geocentrism and used it as a basis to prove the existence of God. Copernicus believed that Ptolemy regarded illusion as reality because he failed to distinguish between appearance and essence. Because we cannot feel the rotation of the earth, we only feel that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west every day. This is just like when people are sitting on a large ship and sailing, they often cannot feel the ship moving, but only see things on the shore moving. Same as moving backward. As a result, Copernicus proposed the heliocentric theory and published his masterpiece "On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres". He bravely proposed that the sun is the center of the universe and that the earth is not the center of the universe. It is just an ordinary planet orbiting the sun. Because Copernicus was limited by his time and class, he could not completely get rid of the influence of old traditional concepts. He followed the ancient Greek idealist school's statement that the circle is the most perfect shape, and believed that the orbits of planets around the sun are circular and move at a uniform speed. But it turns out that the orbits of planets around the sun are elliptical and non-uniform. These imperfections in Copernican theory were developed and perfected by Bruno and Kepler.

The birth of Copernicus' "heliocentric theory" liberated astronomy from the shackles of religious theology, and natural science was reborn. This was of epoch-making significance in the history of the development of modern science.

3. The challenge of natural science to theology

For thousands of years, theological obscurantism has been rampant. They exalt the power of gods, belittle human beings, stifle scientific discoveries, and let science act as theology. 's servant. The introduction of Copernican theory was an open challenge to theology, and it pointed the spearhead of the struggle directly at the Roman Church. Copernicus's theory overturned the basic theories of astronomy at that time and distinguished science from mysterious witchcraft. It violated Christian doctrine and was opposed by the church. The Pope denounced Copernicus's theory as a "wrong and completely unbiblical heresy" and banned his works. At the same time, he brutally persecuted scholars who promoted Copernicus' theory.

Bruno, a natural scientist who shouted for the truth, boldly exposed the ignorance of religion despite the church's ban. He organically combined the advanced natural science and philosophy at that time and established his own materialistic natural philosophy of the universe. He insisted on supplementing and developing the Copernican theory. Copernicus reduced the earth from the central celestial body of the universe to a planet in the solar system, thus shaking the foundation of Catholic theological rule. Bruno reduced the sun from the central celestial body of the universe to an ordinary star, which brought people's scientific understanding of the universe another step forward. This is a further development of the "geocentric theory" preached by the church and the resulting "anthropocentrism" Complete denial. Bruno's ideas caused hundreds of religious inquisitions to declare him a heretic, and the Roman Catholic Church tried every means to put him to death. For this reason, they used despicable means to lure him back to the country and imprisoned him in dungeons in Venice and Rome for eight years in an attempt to force him to bow his head and confess his sins, give up his views, repent to the church, condemn himself, and surrender. However, during these eight years of prison life, although Bruno was tortured, he never wavered in his beliefs, did not give up his doctrines, and did not admit his "mistakes." On February 17, 1600, Bruno was burned at the stake in the Campo de' Fiori in Rome. Bruno enthusiastically promoted materialism and atheism everywhere, and spread the Copernican theory throughout Europe, making him the most determined and brave fighter against the church and scholasticism.

At the same time, the scientist Galileo also fought unrelentingly against the Holy See in order to safeguard the truth. He used a homemade telescope to observe the sun, moon, and stars in the sky, uncovering many secrets in the celestial bodies, providing favorable evidence for the Copernican theory, and defeating the "world of gods" that attempts to anesthetize people's spirits and wills. A fatal blow. Pope Paul V (1605-1621) seriously felt that although the Holy See eliminated Bruno physically, it did not eliminate Copernican theory ideologically. Now Galileo is using new discoveries to support Copernican theory. The Holy See was once again hit. Therefore, on March 5, 1616, the Pope reiterated that Copernicus's theory was a "heresy" and his works were listed as banned books. No one was allowed to talk about, promote or read them, otherwise they would be tried by the Inquisition. However, the warning from the Holy See did not make Galileo give up his astronomical research work. After long-term observation and study of the movements of celestial bodies, he became more convinced of the correctness of Copernicus' theory. In 1632, Galileo's "Dialogue Concerning the Two World Systems, Ptolemaic and Copernican" was finally published after a long period of review. After the publication of this work, it was greatly hated by some clergymen. They complained to the Inquisition on the pretext that the ban of 1616 was still in effect. Soon, the book was banned from sale, and Galileo was summoned to stand trial before the Roman Inquisition. At this time, Galileo was nearly 70 years old and his body was weak. Although he was exhausted from torture and was dying, he still argued hard and insisted on his own views and refused to bow to the Holy See. In the end, Galileo was sentenced to prison, and after his release from prison, he was placed under house arrest in Florence for 7 years.

The famous German astronomer Kepler also fought against the church to defend the truth. During his studies at university, Kepler gradually became an admirer of Copernicus' theory, and his belief in theology was shaken. He often had fierce arguments with his classmates and unequivocally defended Copernicus' theory of the universe. In his later years, he continued to fight against idealism. The Catholic Church hated Kepler's actions, surrounded his residence, and threatened to execute him. Kepler later escaped death because he was once the emperor's mathematician. But this did not shake his belief. He still insisted on scientific research and made great developments in Copernicus' heliocentric theory.

4. The victory of natural science

Once human reason is freed from the constraints of the theological worldview, it will have tremendous power. The great discoveries in astronomy made by astronomers such as Copernicus and Kepler were very different from religious prejudices and were a complete negation of the theological system. It was the discoveries of these giants that promoted the development of the materialist worldview. The power of truth cannot be suppressed, and human understanding will never be stopped by the fooling of religious ideas. More than two hundred years later, the Pope of Rome had to admit that the heliocentric theory was correct, and vindicated Bruno, Galileo and other scientists who had died unjustly. This is the victory of truth, the victory of science, the victory of the giants of the Renaissance.

Ancient Greece:

The Greek culture created by the Greeks has extraordinary penetration. She can transcend the limitations of time and space and spread to the Apennines along with the sailing fleets and Roman legions. , spread to the Rhine River, spread to Bactria? She has infinite vitality, and is absorbed and transformed by subsequent civilizations from time to time, thus becoming a unique and eternal treasure of mankind.

Ancient Greece is the cradle of Western civilization and a symbol of human wisdom. Although they have not formed a unified country, they are closely connected by the same language, the same beliefs, and the same history. Their "all-encompassing talents and activities guarantee them a position in the history of human development that no other people can achieve." The ancient Greek nation not only created a splendid civilization and took the lead in literature, history, science, philosophy, art and other aspects, but also gave birth to all the embryos of modern Western civilization.

Crete:

The birthplace of Greek civilization

Greek civilization originated in Crete - a small island said to be located in the "center of the world". Here, the future King of Athens, Theseus, once broke into the labyrinth and chopped off the terrifying head of the Minoan bull, becoming a hero worshiped by the Greeks. This labyrinth was miraculously excavated at the beginning of the 20th century, breaking news that shocked the world. Now, when people face the ruins of the palace that have been sealed in dust for thousands of years, and admire the exquisite murals and detailed and unique artifacts, they can't help but sigh. It should be the birthplace of Greek culture.

However, the ruthlessness of history swept away the glory of Crete. Barbarism has replaced civilization, fierce folk customs, endless battles, flowing blood and struggling death. This is an era that needs heroes and heroes do appear. Their impressive achievements call for admiration from future generations. So the blind poet Homer rekindled the fire of Greek culture and cut through the long night. He wrote the two epics "Iliad" and "Odyssey" and enthusiastically sang the almighty gods and bloody warriors, whether it was the sacred Athens Anna, Poseidon, or the mortal Achilles and Hector, whether they are Greeks or Trojans, whether they are victors or defeated generals, all heroic people are promoted by this respected poet. . The late Pindar was a poet second only to Homer. He was talented and ambitious. He regarded poetry as a tool to spread his own value. He once solemnly declared to the world: "I will use flaming poetry to ignite this dear city and let it burn. Let my language spread to the world. Every corner moves faster than a galloping horse or a ship with wings. "Pinda's poems are full of momentum and give people infinite beauty.

Greece’s simple Archaic era was an era when Greeks continued to export immigrants overseas. Their colonies were spread all over Western Europe, Southern Europe, North Africa, Asia Minor and the Black Sea coast, from Massaria to Byzantium, and from Poti. Asia to Sinope is like countless roots extending from the trunk of the Greek mainland, thirstily sucking the cultural nutrients of the surrounding soil. Egyptian religion, Persian philosophy, Phoenician writing, Babylonian astronomy and the art of "barbarian peoples", countless ancient civilizations and thousands of years of cultural achievements all spread quickly to the Peloponnese through these roots The rolling hills spread to the harvest orchards of Attica and to the barren mountains of Beatea. The Greeks are extremely lucky. They are like the darlings of thousands of people, tightly embraced by many ancient civilizations, and enjoy the blessings left to them by Eastern civilization.

Drama:

Played the role of enriching people's spiritual life

Greeks loved life and enjoyed life. "Within the scope provided by life, people should give full play to various major abilities to make life perfect and beautiful" - this is the definition of happiness written by ancient Greece. This is a concept full of vitality that runs through all Greek history. Elegant drama plays the role of enriching people's spiritual life. Sophocles is the master of Greek tragedy. Although his works have been polished by distant ages and omitted by misinformation, they still have beautiful style and sophisticated skills. The taste of "classical" is just like this, clean, quiet and solemn; vigorous but restrained; solemn yet elegant. Its structure is also classical, with each line of poetry related to each other and gradually evolving and developing to a climax, presenting the meaning of its theme. Greek literature and art were fruitful, and the achievements of drama were by no means accidental. Perhaps the victory in the Greco-Persian War gave the Greeks the confidence and passion necessary to create a great era of drama, or perhaps it was the development of trade. Economic prosperity enabled them to support choral and dramatic competitions that cost thousands of dollars. In addition to Sophocles, great playwrights include Aeschylus, Euripides and Aristophanes, who created scenes of joys and sorrows with their pens. The scenes that touch people's hearts create vivid and vivid characters one after another with outstanding personalities. The democratic atmosphere is the source of the vitality and richness of Greek drama. Aeschylus did not have to worry about being suppressed by the medieval concept of theocratic supremacy, and allowed Prometheus to defy the power from Olympus; Euripides was able to break through the idea of ??male superiority and female inferiority. The barriers made the humiliated Medea express her heartfelt grievance that "only women suffer the most" in the world. The wonderfully blooming Greek drama will always be a precious heritage of mankind.

History:

Greek thinking about the past

The ancient Greeks regarded the memory of thinking about the past as an inherent human instinct. They do not want to keep their cognition on the surface of the problem, but want to trace the essence of the matter, so as to achieve perfect rationality. The Greeks had a sense of history very early, but they did not know that Homer played the role of a historian. Although his poems have literary elements, they also contain many historical facts. The successful excavation of Troy itself proves the authenticity of Homer's records. The magnificent Greco-Persian War and the numerous sufferings and severe tests the Greeks endured in this war have all left an indelible mark on the minds of the Greeks. This stimulated a great historian, Herodotus, who vowed to pass on this lamentable deed to future generations so that it would be remembered through the ages. This is how the "History of the Greco-Persian War", which is respected as a masterpiece of classical history, was born. Herodotus also gained the reputation of "Father of History". Later Thucydides pushed Greek historiography to a new peak. He had personally witnessed the Peloponnesian War that took place at the end of the fifth century BC. He could not forget that the brothers in the city-states put on heavy armor, picked up spears and daggers, and rushed towards each other mercilessly; compatriots fell one after another, and their loved ones fell one by one. Death; plagues flying all over the sky, bones exposed on the hills, this is simply a disaster and nightmare for the Greeks! The pain of the war and the rise and fall of the country and individuals deeply impacted Thucydides's soul, which led him to use his mind to write a long-lasting masterpiece "History of the Peloponnesian War", which established a reputation in the history of history. A monument admired by future generations.

Science:

Provided opportunities for the vigorous development of Greece

The Egyptians built pyramids, palaces and temples and measured the fertility left after the Nile River flooded They studied the measurement methods of the land, and the priests often observed the sky to learn the decrees of the "gods". Compared with them, the Greeks showed a stronger interest in the mysteries of the universe and the laws of all things. Alexander's expedition almost allowed the Greeks to see the "end" of the world. Facing the turbulent Indus River and crossing the inaccessible Caucasus, they could not help but lament their previous ignorance and ignorance. At the same time, a large number of Hellenistic cities sprang up at the intersection of Asia, Africa and Europe, and libraries sprung up like mushrooms after rain. This undoubtedly provided opportunities for the vigorous development of science. We know that Pythagoras discovered the "Great Theorem of the Universe" very early; Euclid summarized the experience of previous generations and created systematic geometry. His "Principles of Geometry" has been passed down for thousands of years and has remained popular until now. A popular textbook in European universities; Archimedes of Syracuse was good at thinking. He realized the existence of buoyancy from the water overflowing from the bathtub, found the mathematical formula for the equilibrium position of a floating body, and founded hydrostatics. He gained strength and confidence from science and asserted that if he was given a fulcrum, he would move the entire earth. This is a fearless spirit and perseverance to challenge nature. The value of Greek scientists lies in this. The Roman soldier who killed Archimedes, who begged for time to think about the problem, unexpectedly fell into a crime that would never be forgiven. Greek astronomy benefited from Babylon. Aristarchus of Samos had doubted the "geocentrism" long before Copernicus. Hipbacus made the telescope and quadrant, the main astronomical instruments at that time, and invented The method of determining the position of the ground using longitude and latitude lines was developed, and the lengths of the solar year, lunar year and sidereal year were calculated with fairly close to accurate values. The romantic Greeks also gave myths to the confusing sky and the constellations they divided. Whenever night falls, we sit in the quiet farmyard and look up at the sky, daydreaming in the twinkling of fireflies and stars, as if we were seeing Apollo wearing The winged flying shoes rush towards the fairy playing the harp, the Pegasus soars over the head of the lion, and the brave Orion is swinging his stick to hit the Sirius... In addition to the prominent astronomy, physics and mathematics , the Greeks have achieved exploratory results in botany, zoology, medicine and other aspects, laying a solid foundation for the development of modern disciplines.

Wisdom:

Promoted the Greeks to pursue the supreme truth

The Greeks admired wisdom, and the god in charge of wisdom in their minds was the beautiful and powerful Athens. Na. Few ancient civilizations have produced as many philosophers and sages as Greece. Flowers bloom and fall, cold and summer come and go, the moon moves and the stars move, and rivers rush. The Greeks are always confused by the elusiveness of the world and are willing to explore the eternal truth. The wise men had flashes of inspiration and endless thinking. Thales of Miletus regarded the water that breeds life as the origin of all things. Anaximani insisted that the air that permeates the surroundings is the foundation of the universe, while Heraclitus seemed to dance from leaps and bounds. Seeing the ultimate answer in the burning flame, he said: "This world was neither created by a god nor a man. It has long been, is now, and will be an eternal fire." Parmenides and Democritus also expressed his own opinions. This situation of contention among a hundred schools of thought benefited from the development of trade. Where there is trade, there is the flow of people. When elites from all over the world come together, there will inevitably be sparks of ideas. After defeating the Persians, Athens became one of the most developed city-states in the Greek world for commerce. The perfect democratic system released an air of freedom, attracting talents from all over the world like a magnet and giving them the leisure to think. It was under such conditions that Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and Xenophon successively won the crown of the kingdom of wisdom.

The ugly and disheveled Socrates did not write anything, but inspired Plato, making him forget drama, sports and women to pursue the supreme truth. Plato got a rest garden on the outskirts of the city, which later became the world-famous "Athens Academy", focusing on teaching mathematics and philosophy. Students do not have to pay fees there, and women can also stop and listen. It is like a melting pot, gathering and refining the cultural achievements of Greece over hundreds of years. We always divide Plato's ideas into logic, metaphysics, ethics, aesthetics and politics, etc. However, his teachings are not systematic at all, but are mixed in beautiful and thoughtful "dialogues". Plato believed that all things depended on ideas, worshiped the love of truth that transcended the body and spirit, and longed for a society without degradation, poverty, tyranny, and war. In his ideal country, everyone had the right to receive education, and wise men ruled ignorance. Aristotle inherited Plato's career. He was profound in erudition and had superior intelligence. He left his solid footprints in philosophy, politics, logic, rhetoric, poetry and Neo-Confucianism.

Greece is a nation that dares to think, challenge and practice. Although some of the most admirable works no longer exist, careful study of the remaining architecture, sculptures and vase paintings can provide insight into the splendor of Greek artistic achievements. The Parthenon is a masterpiece of Greek architecture and a symbol of people's conquest of nature. Each part of it has a lasting balance and does not overturn due to the intentionally different lengths of the Doric columns it supports. It stretches, stretches, stands upright, is strong, and is in harmony with elegance. The Greeks admired the beauty of the human body and made statues of the almighty gods and the top athletes in the Olympus Games. They appreciate the masculinity of men and the gracefulness of women. The "discus thrower"'s backwards swinging arms and bent knees will always make people feel an unstoppable force. The graceful "S"-shaped stance and incomplete arms of Venus de Milos are endlessly imaginative. . The combination of red and black produces a steady and elegant visual effect. The Greeks used them as glaze colors for fired pottery, and used ever-changing geometric figures and flowing lines to tell touching legends on bottles and jars: There was a horse-drawn chariot. In the galloping battlefield, there is Odyssey's arduous journey back home, and the seductive singing of the sirens deep in the sea. No wonder, Marx spoke highly of Greek art, which not only can bring spiritual enjoyment to future generations, but also "is a normative and unattainable model in some respects." Years may pass and power may change, but the civilization created by the Greeks will never be extinguished like the eternal holy fire.

Ancient Rome:

Culture

The dominant culture of the Eastern Roman Empire was Greek culture. Greek is not only a daily language, but also the unique language of church, literature and business. For the Romans at that time, today's distinction between the "Latin Empire in the West" and the "Greek Empire in the East" and today's emphasis that the Empire in the East was not the "real" Roman Empire was not important. The Roman Empire was a polyglot empire, and Eastern Rome was no exception. In this country were Greeks, Vlachians, Armenians, Jews, Egyptians, Syrians, Illyrians, and Slavs, all of whom had their own languages. But Greek culture spread throughout the country from the imperial cities such as Constantinople, Antioch, Ephesus, Thessaloniki and Alexandria.

Although it was not obvious at the time, the Eastern Roman Empire developed their own style of ancient Greek achievements under the impression of its scholars such as John Guisostone:

(1 ) Literature: "Homer's Epic"

"Prometheus Bound" (Aeschylus, the father of tragedy)

(2) Architecture: Parthenon

(3) Science: Archimedes (physicist, mathematician)

Euclide (mathematician)