Voltaire (1694- 1778): Formerly Fran-Marie Arouet (Fran? Ois-Marie Arouet), French enlightenment thinker, writer and philosopher. Voltaire was the standard-bearer of the French bourgeois enlightenment in the18th century, and was known as "the king of French thought", "the best poet in France" and "the conscience of Europe". He advocates natural human rights and believes that all people are born free and equal, and all people have the right to pursue survival and happiness, which is endowed by heaven and cannot be deprived. This is an innate idea of human rights.
[Edit this paragraph] Life
Voltaire was born in a wealthy middle-class family in Paris and received a good education since childhood. His father is a legal notary, hoping that he will become a judge in the future, but he became interested in literature and later became a scholar.
Voltaire was alert and versatile all his life. His works are famous for their sharp language and satirical style. He said, "Laughter can conquer everything. This is the most powerful weapon. " He was twice thrown into the Bastille for satirizing feudal absolutism. His books were banned and he himself was deported many times. He was forced into exile in England from 65438 to 0725, and became interested in the politics and culture of the British bourgeoisie. He studied the British bourgeois constitutional monarchy, Locke's materialist empiricism and Newton's theory of universal gravitation.
Voltaire experienced the rule of Louis XIV, XV and XVI, witnessed the decline of feudal absolutism from prosperity, and personally felt the decay and reactionary rule of feudal absolutism. He deeply; He foresaw that the revolution would come, so he said to his friends, "Everything around me is sowing the seeds of revolution. Although I may not be a witness to the revolution myself, it will definitely come. "
Voltaire wrote a large number of literary works, among which the famous ones are the epic Henry Yade, The Girl in Orleans, the tragedy Odeber, the comedy The dissolute Son and the philosophical novel The Honest Man. He also wrote many historical works, such as Louis XIV and On the Customs and Spirits of All Ethnic Groups. In philosophy, his representative works include Dictionary of Philosophy, Metaphysics and Principles of 4 Newton's Philosophy, among which the most influential work is Philosophical Exchange, which is called "the first bomb thrown into the old system".
Voltaire's extraordinary intelligence, keen thinking and exposure of dark feudal absolutism made him enjoy high prestige among the people. The ruler wants to use him, too. Louis XV asked him to be a court historian, Frederick II of Prussia treated him as a guest of honor, and Catherine II of Russia received him, but in the end, his rebellion broke with his thoughts. The painful experience made him decide not to associate with any king again.
Voltaire sharply criticized the dark rule of Cardiff Cardinal Conference. He compared the Pope to a biped, called the priest a "civilized villain" and called Catholicism "the most shameful deception trap set by some cunning people". He called on "everyone to fight the appalling religious fanaticism in their own way, and some people bit his ears;" Some people stepped on his stomach, and some people scolded him from a distance. "But Voltaire is not an atheist, but a deist. He believes that he wants to rule the people; Religion is indispensable. He said, "Even without God; We must also create a god. "
Voltaire believed in the theory of natural rights, believing that "people are equal in essence" and demanding that everyone enjoy "natural rights". He advocates that everyone is equal before the law, but he thinks that the inequality of property rights is inevitable. He idealized the British constitutional monarchy, and thought that the most ideal thing was an "enlightened" monarch to govern the country according to the opinions of philosophers. Philosophically, he acknowledged the objective existence of the material world and affirmed that knowledge originated from sensory experience, but he also believed that God was the "first promoter" of the universe. He despises the working people, thinking that they can only do rough work and can't think, saying, "When the people think, everything will be over."
As a bourgeois thinker, Voltaire has limitations in all aspects, which is not surprising. Because he is also deeply branded with the brand of his time and class. However, his great contribution to the anti-feudal enlightenment is still worthy of people's eternal commemoration.
Voltaire's literary views and interests basically inherited the legacy of classicism in the17th century, mainly in the creation of poems and tragedies. His epic "Henry Yade" (1728) takes the religious war in France in the 6th century as the theme, and writes that Henry IV of Bourbon dynasty ascended the throne after the victory of the civil war, and issued an amnesty in the south to protect the religious freedom of Protestants. Henry IV in the epic is regarded as a model of enlightened monarch. Voltaire's philosophical poems are thorough in reasoning, and satirical poems are witty, calm and unique. Voltaire was mainly engaged in drama creation in his life, and wrote more than 50 plays, most of which were tragedies. The most valuable of Voltaire's literary works is philosophical novels. This is a new genre initiated by him, telling absurd stories in a playful style, insinuating satirical reality and clarifying profound philosophy.
1726 to 1729 During his stay in Britain, he devoted himself to investigating the British political system, philosophy, literature and art. After returning to China, he published Philosophical Letters (also known as English Letters, 1734) to publicize the achievements of the British bourgeois revolution and criticize the French autocratic regime. The book was banned after publication, and the Paris court ordered the arrest of the author. He fled to his girlfriend Ms. Aitley's manor in Schiller Village and lived in seclusion for 15 years.
1746 and was elected as an academician of the French Academy. Voltaire came to Berlin in 1750 at the invitation of King Friedrich II of Prussia with the illusion of an enlightened monarch. He wanted to make a difference in politics, but Friedrich II regarded him as a literary squire. The painful experience made him decide not to associate with any king again.
During this period, he contacted the younger generation of enlightenment thinkers and wrote articles for Encyclopedia, which were later included in his book Dictionary of Philosophy (1764).
He left Berlin on 1753 to live in Switzerland.
Starting from 1760, he settled in Fahrne manor on the French-Swiss border, kept frequent correspondence with people from all over Europe, actively participated in social activities, and wrote a large number of pamphlets to expose religious persecution and the darkness of the judicial department under the authoritarian regime.
In the meantime, religious factional struggles occurred in France, which led to a large number of escapes. Voltaire took in hundreds of refugees in his manor. He also repeatedly resisted injustice, upheld justice for the poor and rehabilitated unjust cases. The most influential event is the Kara incident.
17611kloc-0/013 A terrible tragedy happened in a house in Filati Street in Toulouse. The owner of this family, Jean Kara, is a respected Huguenot businessman. Late that night, Jean Carla found his eldest son, marc anthony, hanging himself in the shop. At that time, the whole family panicked, and his mother burst into tears, which alarmed the neighbors. Suddenly, someone in the crowd said, "marc anthony was killed by his parents because he chose Catholicism." Catholicism and Protestantism experienced a religious war in the16th century, which has been more than 200 years, but the opposition is still very sharp. After hearing the news, a judge in Toulouse arrested everyone who was at home on the night of the "murder" without investigating, interrogating or even looking at the scene. Why did marc anthony commit suicide? It turned out that at the age of 28, he studied law and wanted to be a lawyer, but he was forced to engage in business because he could not get a Catholic certificate. He wanted to get some money from his father to do business, but his father refused. Disappointed, he went to the cafe every day to drown his sorrows. Later, because he was in debt, he felt that his future was bleak and he found a short-sighted idea. How can an old man with gray hair and nearly sixty years old hang a strong young man? The crime of "murder" is obviously difficult to establish. Prosecutor Di Ku righteously appeared in court to defend old Carla, but was suspended for three months. Lawyer Huddle tried to clarify the truth, but the judge, who was in a frenzy of excitement, ignored it and thought the lawyer was incompetent. The presiding judge abused his power and forced Kara to give up his partner. Kara said flatly, "Since there is no crime, how can there be an accomplice?" 1762, 10 In March, the court rudely sentenced Kara to dismantle the car regardless of all the evidence of innocence. Before the execution, old Carla said bitterly, "I told the truth, and I died innocently ..." Shortly after the incident, Voltaire heard all kinds of rumors. He has always been skeptical about the church, believing that Catholicism and Protestantism are shameless people. The tragic experience of the old man Kara aroused his great indignation against the church and judicial authorities, and he was determined to fight for human dignity and freedom of belief. Through various channels, he calmly investigated and collected evidence in person, summoned Carla's two sons exiled to Geneva to Ferné, and compared the details they provided with the reflections they heard from passing passengers, thus making a personal judgment on the whole incident. In the meantime, he published the confessions of the two brothers Carla, wrote a pamphlet to expose this inhuman injustice, and provided all the expenses for Mrs. Carla to take her to Paris to attract public attention. 1February 3, 763, Voltaire wrote an appeal in his own hand and made the conclusion that "I am sure this family is innocent". On March 7, the Privy Council ordered a retrial of the case, and Carla, the wronged old man, and his family were finally rehabilitated.
At the end of this year, Voltaire published the famous "On Religious Tolerance", which lashed out at the religious persecution of reactionary churches and the dark phenomenon that authoritarian regimes ignored human life, and expounded his idealism and materialism.
Later, he also ran for the 19-year-old knight Labar and Mr. sylvain, who was over half a year old, who were also persecuted by the church, and finally rehabilitated these two cases.
Throughout his later years, Voltaire engaged in a great deal of creation with more vigorous fighting spirit, and successively wrote 6 13 entries for the encyclopedia, which was compiled into a book in 1764 and published under the title of "Dictionary of Philosophy". In addition, he also published philosophical novels Chadiger, Honest Man, historical works Russian History under Peter the Great and On Parliament.
It is worth mentioning that during his settlement in Fernai, he kept frequent correspondence with people from all walks of life in European countries. According to statistics, more than 10,000 letters of Voltaire have been preserved, and as many as 700 people corresponded with him. In this way, he discussed various social problems with his correspondents and publicized his anti-authoritarian and anti-church enlightenment thoughts. Voltaire's tireless struggle won him great fame. His name resounded all over Europe, and many celebrities came here to inquire about him. Fernand became the center of European public opinion, and the progressives at that time addressed Voltaire as "the patriarch of Fernand".
1In February, 778, he returned to Paris to attend the first performance of his tragedy Irena. As soon as the news spread, the whole city was a sensation. Some young people who have only heard his name but have never seen him are even more ecstatic, flocking to his place of residence, making the surrounding streets crowded. When he passed by, the women secretly pulled a hair or two from his fur coat and kept it as a sacred object.
In Paris, Voltaire was so excited that he was forced to stay in bed because of uremia. However, he insisted on dictating the last five-act poetic tragedy Irena. Although the script is unremarkable, Paris and Versailles reacted strongly during the performance. The Queen attended the performance, and Voltaire also dragged his sick body to enjoy this final honor and happiness at the scene.
Church people have ulterior motives and want to use Voltaire's prestige to improve their social status, so they try their best to make some money from Voltaire's illness.
One day, a priest sneaked into Voltaire's ward and asked Voltaire to make his last confession. Although Voltaire was not an atheist, but a deist, he was always at odds with the church. He knew the priest's purpose very well and sent him away rudely.
A few days later, another abbot named Morey did the same thing again. Voltaire saw him come in and asked:
"Dad, where are you from?"
"Ah, sir, I am sent by God!"
"Really? Can you show me God's letter? "
Although Voltaire was seriously ill, he still kept a clear head and mercilessly exposed the ugly faces of these "wolves in robes" with his unique spicy irony.
/kloc-in may of 0/2, Voltaire's hemoptysis continued, and his body temperature rose sharply. The Duke of Richelieu couldn't bear to see his old friend suffer like this, so he sent him tincture of opium. Voltaire was confused and drank all the sedatives with remarkable efficacy. While he was in a coma, three priests broke in. When he was a little sober, they asked him if he recognized the sanctity of Christ. Voltaire has given a negative answer in the Dictionary of Philosophy. When he heard the words "Christ" and "Holy", he flew into a rage, made an amazing move, propped up the sick body, pushed the priest angrily and said, "Let me die in peace."
Voltaire died on1on the afternoon of May 30th, 978 1 1. The reactionary church hated this blasphemous old enemy and ordered his body to be transported out of Paris overnight and abandoned.
However, Voltaire's contribution to the French Enlightenment in the18th century is undeniable. He was recognized as the leader and mentor of the people for most of his life. His thoughts and theories will educate generations, lay a theoretical foundation for the anti-feudal struggle and arm the minds of the French people for the coming bourgeois revolution. After the French Revolution, Voltaire's bones were buried in the Great Men's Cemetery.
[Edit this paragraph] Ideas and opinions
Voltaire sharply criticized the dark rule of the Catholic Church. He compared the Pope to a biped, called the priest a "civilized villain" and called Catholicism "the most shameful deception trap set by some cunning people". He called on "everyone to fight the appalling religious fanaticism in their own way, and some people bit his ears;" Some people stepped on his stomach, and some people scolded him from a distance. "However, Voltaire is not an atheist, but a deist. He advocates a tolerant attitude towards different religious beliefs and has been fighting against religious prejudice all his life, but he also believes that religion is essential as a means to curb human lust and bad habits. He believes that he wants to rule the people; Religion is indispensable. He said, "Even without God; We must also create a god. "
Voltaire believed in the theory of natural rights, believing that "people are equal in essence" and demanding that everyone enjoy "natural rights". He advocates that everyone is equal before the law, but he thinks that the inequality of property rights is inevitable. He idealized the British constitutional monarchy, and thought that the most ideal thing was an "enlightened" monarch to govern the country according to the opinions of philosophers. Voltaire was a thinker during the Enlightenment. He reflected the interests of the upper bourgeoisie and advocated an enlightened monarchy. Philosophically, he believed in the empiricism of British materialist philosopher Locke.
Philosophically, he acknowledged the objective existence of the material world and affirmed that knowledge originated from sensory experience, but he also believed that God was the "first promoter" of the universe. He despises the working people very much, thinking that they can only do rough work and can't think, saying, "When the people think, everything will be over."
Voltaire's great contribution to the anti-feudal enlightenment is worth remembering forever.
[Edit this paragraph] Literary viewpoint
Voltaire's literary views and interests basically inherited the legacy of classicism in the17th century, mainly in the creation of poems and tragedies. His epic "Henry Yade" (1728) takes the religious war in France in the 6th century as the theme, and writes that Henry IV of Bourbon dynasty ascended the throne after the victory of the civil war, and issued an amnesty in the south to protect the religious freedom of Protestants. Henry IV in the epic is regarded as a model of enlightened monarch. Voltaire's philosophical poems are thorough in reasoning, and satirical poems are witty, calm and unique. Voltaire was mainly engaged in drama creation in his life, and wrote more than 50 plays, most of which were tragedies. The most valuable of Voltaire's literary works is philosophical novels. This is a new genre initiated by him, telling absurd stories in a playful style, insinuating satirical reality and clarifying profound philosophy.
[Edit this paragraph] Main works
Literary works, including the famous epic Henry Yade, The Girl in Orleans, the tragedy Odeber, the comedy The dissolute Son, the philosophical novels The Honest Man and The Innocent Man.
In philosophy, representative works include Dictionary of Philosophy, Metaphysics and Principles of Newton's Philosophy, among which the most influential work is Philosophical Newsletter, which is called "the first bomb dropped on the old system".
Historical works include Twelve History of Charles (173 1), The Age of Louis XIV (175 1) and On Customs (1756).
[Edit this paragraph] Voltaire's famous saying
1 Voltaire has a famous saying.
"I can disagree with you, but I will defend your right to speak to the death!"
Well said!
If I don't agree with you,
You can argue, you can put the facts and reasons.
But you can't use other illegal means.
Such as abuse, slander, slander, deception and unruly.
Of course, this is not talking.
Old Voltaire didn't say.
"But I will defend to the death your right to swear!"
Call names at will or even for no reason.
Is against morality.
If it is serious, it will be illegal and criminal.
Do you know that?/You know what?
No matter how powerful you are.
Such as George W. Bush and Rice.
Don't abuse at will.
Citizens of any country
No matter how powerful you are.
Such as black and white.
You should also have your own rules.
There is no absolute freedom in the world.
Even if you scold your family in your own house
If it is serious, it will be prosecuted.
Can be correctly understood.
Voltaire's famous saying?
"I can disagree with you, but I will defend your right to speak to the death!"
Let me remind you for the last time.
Old Voltaire didn't say.
"But I will defend to the death your right to swear!"
Voltaire famously said, "I may disagree with you, but I will defend your right to speak to the death!" " "
Without great difficulties, there will be no great cause.
2.● Freedom is the most precious property of mankind.
Read more books without thinking, and you will feel that you know a lot. The more books you read and think, the more you will feel that you don't understand.
Great cause needs unswerving spirit.
This is my heart, but my spirit is everywhere.
I may disagree with you, but I will defend to the death your right to speak.
● Even if there is no God, create a God.
The greatest function of the Oracle is to ensure the victory of the war.
● Prophecy has always been made only for great men, and the king doesn't need it.
Anyone who wants to explain to his compatriots with reason will be persecuted unless he is the strongest. However, the strongest almost always strengthen the chain of ignorance, not break it.
● The library is a treasure house of human knowledge and fallacies.
Strong self-confidence can make ordinary people do amazing things.
No matter how talented he is, he still needs to learn the skills to use those talents.
A family without books is like a room without windows.
[Edit this paragraph] Voltaire and China
Voltaire admired China civilization. He carefully studied China's Confucianism. Enthusiastically praised China as a rationalist country. According to the French translation of the Yuan drama Orphan of Zhao, he wrote a tragedy Orphan of China, which praised the wisdom and virtue of the Chinese nation, and caused great repercussions in France. & gt appears in the last chapter of his book & gt.