Military reform
Militarily, Russia began to implement compulsory military service for all and prohibited corporal punishment by the army.
In the social field, investment in education and health care has increased. Since 1863, Russian universities have gained autonomy and the academic atmosphere has gradually turned to liberalization. Starting from 1864, secondary education institutions began to recruit students for the whole society, which changed the previous practice of only accepting aristocratic children.
During this period, the first female middle schools were opened in Russia, and women also gained the right to receive higher education and medical professional education. The social status of Russian women during Alexander II was higher than that of European women.
transport
Alexander II brought backward Russia into the ranks of western powers through traffic modernization. He first noticed the transportation problem. At that time, there was only one main railway line from St. Petersburg to Moscow in Russia, and the national railway mileage was only 965 kilometers. After the vigorous development of Alexander II, by the time of his death, the national railway mileage had reached 22,525 kilometers. The development of railway transportation makes Russian economy active.
Judicial reform
1 864 65438+1October1,Alexander II issued an imperial edict, announcing the establishment of a "gentry conference" at the local level. The gentry's conference is not only a deliberative organ that absorbs the participation of local social strata, but also endowed with some administrative functions: local communications, transportation, medical care, health, education and charitable institutions are all under the responsibility of the gentry's conference. In June of that year, 1 1, Russia once again began judicial reform and began to implement the jury system throughout Russia. All cases were tried in court, and the defendant was granted the right to hire a lawyer. At the same time, the imperial edict stipulates that judges are inviolable and cancels all privileges of the aristocratic class in the process of legal proceedings.
Educational culture
The field of education has developed by leaps and bounds.
During the reign of Alexander II, the Russian Art Museum, the famous Tredzic Iacov Gallery, was officially opened to the public (1856), the Mariinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg was completed and opened (1860), the Moscow Zoo was opened to the public (1864) and the Moscow Conservatory of Music was completed and opened (1866). The Russian telegraph office was established (1866), the Moscow Museum of History was opened (1875), the first power station in Russia was completed and put into operation (1879), and the electrification era began in St. Petersburg. In addition, during this period, a large number of social organizations in art, medicine and education appeared in Russia, and the first batch of social charitable organizations appeared.
(2) The characteristics of Lincoln's statecraft.
Institutional aspect: Abolish slavery.
After the outbreak of the civil war, President Lincoln made a decisive decision, which not only expanded the president's war power, but also ordered the suspension of citizens' habeas corpus privileges in some areas. However, Lincoln has been wavering and hesitating on the issue of liberating slaves. One of the important concerns is the private property rights related to the constitutional process. In view of the fact that the US Constitution prohibits the government from depriving citizens of their property without due process of law, Lincoln has no intention or right to liberate slaves. 1862 On August 22nd, Lincoln wrote in a letter to grilli, editor of new york Tribune: "My highest goal is to save the Union, neither to keep slavery nor to destroy it. If I can save the union without liberating a slave, I will not be liberated; If liberating all slaves can save the union, I will be completely liberated; If I liberate some slaves and can keep the union without liberating other slaves, I will do the same. " At the beginning of his presidency, Lincoln tried to demand the abolition of slavery in a peaceful way to avoid national division and war. However, with the deepening of the war, Lincoln really realized that if slavery was to be abolished, it would be necessary to shed blood and sacrifice, and peaceful means could not solve any problems at all. At the critical juncture of the Civil War, Lincoln was able to comply with the demands of the broad masses of people, destroy slavery in a revolutionary way, and solve the people's demand for land, thus promoting the development of American capitalism and making important contributions to safeguarding national unity and liberating slaves.
Military aspect: how did the United States achieve reunification in the sense of the Civil War?
1861April 12, the confederacy declared war and quickly captured the Sumter fortress where the federal government troops were stationed. Lincoln had to declare his opposition to southern operations. Lincoln himself did not advocate the abolition of slavery in a radical way. He believes that slavery can be restricted first, and then abolished gradually by peaceful means. The key is to maintain the unity of the Federation. Under the control of this idea, the northern government did not prepare for the war at all, but rushed to fight, while the south had a plan, well-equipped and well-trained army. Therefore, although the north has advantages in many aspects, it was defeated by the south, and even the capital, Washington, was almost broken by the rebels.
Legal aspects:
1862 In May, Lincoln signed the Homestead Law, which stipulated that every American citizen could acquire 160 acres of land in the west only by paying the registration fee of 10, and become the legal owner of this land after five years of continuous farming. This measure fundamentally eliminated the possibility of southern slave owners seizing land in the west, and at the same time met the urgent demands of the broad masses of farmers, which greatly stimulated the enthusiasm of farmers for their heroic struggle. 1862 in September, Lincoln personally drafted the emancipation proclamation (draft). On June 1 863 65438+1October1,the Emancipation Proclamation was officially promulgated, announcing that slavery in rebel states would be abolished from now on, and freed slaves could be called to join the federal army. The declaration of slave freedom fundamentally disintegrated the fighting capacity of the confederate army and gave the northern army a powerful source of soldiers. During the civil war, the number of blacks who directly participated in the war reached 6.5438+0.86 million. They fought bravely, and one in three blacks gave his life for the cause of liberation. 1863 put forward the programmatic slogan of "of the people, by the people and for the people", thus making the war a mass revolutionary struggle. It is necessary to point out that The Emancipation Proclamation advocates that all slaves in the territory under American rebellion should enjoy freedom. However, the exemption also includes border States that have not left the Federation and States under federal control. This declaration only liberated a small number of slaves immediately, but in essence strengthened the freedom authority of these slaves after the federal army took control of the federal territory, paving the way for the eventual abolition of slavery in the United States.
(3) The characteristics of Bismarck's strategy of governing the country.
Political aspects
On domestic issues, first of all, in the "cultural struggle" from 187 1 to 1877, they attacked each other with the Holy See, and finally ended in mutual compromise. Then at 1878, he immediately began to "encircle the left" and promulgated extraordinary laws to suppress the Social Democratic Party. But at the same time, he also formulated many measures to protect workers, making Germany the first country in the world to have labor legislation, although many of them are superficial.
Military aspects
War is only a tool for Bismarck to achieve his goal, so his "self-control" consciousness is also reflected in his attitude towards force. He is a believer in power politics, however, Bismarck was not a military madman at first; But a politician, a politician who makes the means completely subordinate to the goal. After the end of the Pu 'ao War, there was a need to complete reunification through violence in Germany, but Bismarck maintained a high degree of rationality: "I also believe that it is only through violent incidents that it is possible to promote the reunification of Germany. However, a completely different problem is the mission of causing violent disasters and the responsibility of choosing the right time. Arbitrarily, it is decided to intervene in the development of history only based on subjective reasons, and the result will always be immature fruit. As for German reunification, it is not a mature fruit at present, which is very clear to me. " The use of force must be cautious and must serve realistic political purposes. In the international anarchy that emphasizes the supremacy of national interests, the realization of national goals must be based on strong national strength; At the same time, the use of national strength should be cautious, and the powerful strength owned by the country should be combined with flexible balance of power policies to better realize national goals and interests.
Dynasty war
Bismarck launched three dynastic wars for German reunification. The Prussian War took place in 1864, and Denmark was quickly defeated from 1864 in February. According to the Vienna Peace Treaty signed in June 65438+that year 10, Prussia occupied Schleswig and the Austrian Empire got Holstein.