Under the new situation of the exhaustion of foreign plundering slaves and the development of social productive forces, it is difficult for aristocratic slave owners to continue to directly occupy the vast number of slaves, and the dependence of serfs on lords is growing.
In the mid-Qing Dynasty, the transformation from slave economy to feudal lords economy or the development of serf's feudal attachment to lords can be seen from three Yi title deeds circulating in Shuixi area during Jiaqing period. One of them said that the serf Agua rented a piece of land in Bonaitu, Tang 'an District, Yan Yi, which was a kind of landowner. He pays 520 taels of silver as the top, and rents two buckets of five liters of rice and a bucket of dry land every year. He also made it clear: "In the future, we will pay off the grain, be servants, send big factions and be available at any time, and Gubaz's grandson will always be in charge of the pipeline. In the future, the grain rent will not be clear, and the children of Agouba will be no different. " In addition, there are two land leases to serf A Mu, the main contents of which are basically the same. This is neither the direct coercion of slavery nor the simple economic exploitation. However, because the serfs rented the land of Lord Mutu, there were various economic compulsions, such as labor and currency distribution, in addition to paying the rent. If serfs can't fulfill this kind of economic exploitation and economic coercion, the land of the Lord will be recovered. This will closely combine the economic exploitation caused by land lease with feudal personal attachment.
Naturally, on the premise of maintaining Mutu's land ownership, Mutu still holds great power in political rule, and the transition from slavery to feudalism is by no means smooth. From the early to the middle of the Qing Dynasty, slavery was still very active in some parts of Shuixi, and serious remnants of slavery remained in some areas. For example, in the thirty-fifth year of Qianlong (1770), on the first day of March, Anshaba and Sun Anzhi, Yuefu, Dading Prefecture, Guizhou Province, leased a piece of Jiaowanzi to a man named Buxiu (Grandfather Ma), who did not repair it except for nineteen taels before and after paying the top silver, and wrote, "After ten thousand generations, each generation will take a pawn." When the housekeeper gives birth to a child, she will pay one or two pieces of silver and two jars of wine. In addition, my family will give the housekeeper 1208 yuan. "Combined with the investigation in Weining area of Guizhou after liberation, this relationship of" one for each generation is straight "means that the homeless (separated slaves) cultivate the land rented by others, and each generation has to pay someone to rent a piece. This is another manifestation of the long-term preservation of the remnants of slavery in Shuixi area.
The effective implementation of land reform and the development of feudal landlord economy. In some Yi areas in Qing Dynasty, except for the transition from slave economy to feudal landlord economy under the chieftain system, there was a direct transition from slave economy to feudal landlord economy in other Yi areas due to the effective implementation of land reform and land reform.
Yi people's areas were transformed into places in Qing Dynasty, including Toastmasters of Dongchuan, Wumeng and Zhenxiong. ① Yu Hongmo: An analysis of Yi people's land in Shuixi and Yi people's land contract in Qing Dynasty, Guizhou Ethnic Studies,No. 1 issue 1979. The purpose of soil is to change the flow as the representative. Before Yongzheng, there was a slave ownership system here. E Ertai, the governor of Yunnan Province, recorded the scene that Chen Youweining witnessed when he went to the site of Dongchuan Yi Toastmasters' Club in December of Yongzheng four years: "There are no people in 360 miles, and chickens and dogs are not born." "The field is full of Artemisia, and the ground is full of thorns. If you don't cultivate it, the fishing fire will be extinct." The development of social productive forces has been seriously hindered and destroyed. E Ertai's strategy in the above-mentioned Yi areas is to divide the internal unity of the chieftain first, and at the same time, dispatch troops in the border areas. Slave owners rioted in Wumeng Fucheng, and Liu Qiyuan, the Lord of Wumeng Town, and others were killed. As a result, E Ertai was forced to airlift tens of thousands of officers and men from Yunnan, Guizhou and other places, and carried out a large-scale crushing attack on the slave owners' armed forces in Dongchuan, Wumeng and Zhenxiong, which revived them and initiated the direct transition from slave economy to feudal landlord economy. The concrete measures are as follows: strengthen camping and flood control militarily to prevent Liangshan Yi slave owners from crossing the Jinsha River and making a comeback; Politically, we should carefully select capable talents, with Xu, who is "suitable for people and places", as the main commander of Zhaotong; Focusing on the economic recovery and development, we began to recruit people to reclaim land as early as the beginning of 1727, and then rewarded soldiers with fields that used to belong to the chieftain and are now unemployed. "measure the same amount of silver as cattle and persuade reclamation." 173 1 At the beginning of the year, after hundreds of villages such as Ludian Liangshan were completely razed, people who fled the chaos and were coerced, regardless of Miao Yi in the Han Dynasty, were almost ordered to be summoned and resettled, so tens of thousands of people were reunited. 173 1 At the end of the year, Gao Qichen, who succeeded E Ertai as the governor of Yunnan and Guizhou, took further measures: First, he recruited 1000 farmers who were used to farming from Xundian States and arrived in Zhaotong within a time limit; Secondly, Zhaotong field is divided into four types: ripe water, raw water, ripe drought and raw dry land, which are awarded respectively; It is particularly important that "the land given to soldiers and the people of Yi Hu should be given at the beginning of distribution, that is, clear boundaries should be drawn to avoid future disputes and insinuations of kudzu vine. Its field collects their rice every year, and it is deducted according to the current price. After the deduction, they will be ordered to issue a license to their own field and become an industry forever. This policy not only recognizes workers' land ownership, but also gives loans from production funds, which greatly encourages workers' enthusiasm for production. After only ten years or so, there have been very different changes before and after the reform. 1726, before the current reform, was "the former local chief, who liked idleness and hated farming, indulged tribes, robbed people from time to time, plundered livestock, sold himself for a living, and became a habitual skill". In the 11th year of Qianlong (1746), it was changed to "a few years, land was reclaimed, the wilderness was boundless, merchants were talkative, Han people lived in the same house, and houses were dense, which was no different from the mainland" (5).
In the process of transition to feudal landlord economy, not all regions have to go through the process of land reform and returning to the countryside. For example, Yang, the county magistrate of Xinpingtu appointed in the 27th year of Kangxi, was talked about for three years because of the meritorious military service. On December 21st of Yongzheng (1), E Ertai, the governor of Yunnan and Guizhou, played it, and Zhu approved the imperial edict, volume 49. (1) The Records of Sejong in Qing Dynasty (volume 96, page 20,21).
(2) Zhaotong Chronicle of the Republic of China (Volume II).
(3) The Draft of Zhaotong Records of the Republic of China, Volume 8, Records, Gao Qizhuo: Members went to Zhao to reclaim land. (4) On the third day of November in the 10th year of Qianlong, Dong Fang, the company commander of Zhaotong Town (Zhupi), Yunnan Province,No. 1688, the First Historical Archives of China.
⑤ On February 20th, 11th year of Qianlong, Yunnan Governor Zhang Yun played (Zhu Pi),No. 1688 of Ethnic Affairs in the First Historical Archives of China.
Yes, until the end of the Qing dynasty, the descendants were hereditary, and the jurisdiction was four clean-ups, maintaining the big land ownership of the feudal lords of Tusi. However, in the third year of Qianlong, the amount of land in Xinping was "new purchase of canon, elegant lease of land", of which canon was 9 mu, 8.2%, and "annual income of Jingdou rented 24 stones in the valley, and eight liters of autumn grain in four buckets * * five spoonfuls". It shows that the landlord economy here is progressing around the landlord system and has impacted the latter. Another example is that during the Daoguang period, Yunnan Wuding Liantu Society joined forces with the masses to demand the free sale of land within its jurisdiction. The chieftain was forced to admit that the landlord was only allowed to pay the official rent once in the future. This practice of allowing the landlord's economic development undermined the integrity of the landlord system. Another example is that at the end of Qing Dynasty, Longjie, Niupeng, Daguanzhai and other places in Weining, Guizhou Province still retained the big land ownership of the feudal lords of Mutu, but the adjacent Zhuopu area was sold at a discount because of Mutu's demise, so that the landlord and rich peasant economy in this area gradually occupied the dominant position.
Yi people have a long history of national culture and customs. Except for a few backward areas, Yi people all over the country have a long history of engaging in agricultural production. It is from the practice of agricultural production that the Yi people have accumulated a great deal of astronomical and meteorological knowledge. For example, in Jingdong County, Yunnan Province, the Yi people have compiled many agricultural proverbs based on their long-term observation of astronomical phenomena. In Mouding County, Yunnan Province, according to the time and location of the first sound of spring thunder, some local Yi old farmers can correctly predict the rainy season and abundant rainfall in that year. In Liangshan, Sichuan, the Yi people adopted the method of determining the agricultural time according to phenology in their own production practice, and further linked the agricultural time with the astronomical phenomena, and determined the agricultural time according to the position changes of sunrise and sunset points, and determined a certain crop.
The Yi people also have a lot of valuable experience in the medical treatment of diseases. For example, Su in Chuxiong and Luquan counties of Yunnan, searching for medicine in Bijie area of Guizhou and offering medicine in Liangshan area of Sichuan can all be said to be a summary of local Yi medical experience. Many folk doctors use the medical experience handed down from generation to generation to make some animals, plants and minerals into various local medicines, which can treat many diseases. There are also acupuncture, bonesetting, fumigation, massage, cupping and other surgical operations. And treat livestock diseases. However, in some areas, medical experience was imprisoned by Bimo, who openly preached religious superstitions, and failed to achieve healthy development.
Yi people have syllabic writing, which was founded in Sui and Tang Dynasties and matured in Ming Dynasty. Since the Ming and Qing Dynasties, many Yi classics written in paper have spread all over the country, including calendars, astronomy, genealogy, poetry, myths, history, and the classics used by Bimo. There are also some Yi bronze castings, inscriptions, seals, letters, contracts and IOUs. Most of them are cultural relics preserved in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Yi people have rich literary treasures, and many manuscripts can basically be classified as literary works. Most of them are folk oral literature handed down from generation to generation and constantly tempered, involving all aspects of social life.
There are all kinds of traditional tunes among the Yi people, which can be sung by men, women and children. It is an important part of Yi people's cultural life. Like traditional tunes, local folk songs are colorful and beautiful.
Take it. There are also various dance accompaniment and instrumental music in the Yi people, and there are many kinds of musical instruments, usually orchestral music. Dance is an indispensable part of Yi people's cultural life, and the most popular is collective "dancing music", and the basic movements are not far apart. There is also a court dance in Liangshan Yi area, which can be traced back to the Sui and Tang Dynasties, and was later inherited and preserved by Mozi (Tusi). There are other ancient dance forms in various Yi areas, including fighting dance, bullfighting dance, cockfighting dance, buckwheat dance and corn dance.
The Yi people are popular with polytheism, which has a strong primitive religious color. It can be divided into nature worship, spiritual worship, ghost worship and ancestor worship, among which ancestor worship ceremony is the most grand. Dragon Boat Festival is the most popular place, mostly represented by trees or ponds. Among many gods, the concept of god has appeared, but it is only the embodiment of Mozi or toast on earth. Most Yi priests are called Bimo, and they are male. Those who are familiar with Yi language are usually handed down from generation to generation, and a few are apprentices. In case of killing the enemy, marriage, disease, hunting, traveling and Qimxy, please ask Bimo to divine and predict good or bad luck. In addition, "divine judgment" is also very popular among Yi people, such as oil pan fishing, floating grass, serving red glutinous rice and chewing rice. And losers must accept sanctions.
Patriarchal family is the basic unit of production and consumption in Yi society. The sons are separated from their parents after marriage, and the youngest son often lives with his parents. The inheritance is inherited by the man, and the next of kin owns the property. Daughters can only get part of movable property. The father-son joint system prevailed in the history of Yi nationality. Before 1840, Liangshan Yi women still had a high social status in some aspects. Under the rule of slavery and feudal lords, hierarchical internal marriage prevailed in some Yi areas, mainly between black Yi and Bai Yi, which was absolutely forbidden. In many areas, adoption marriages are prevalent, and most of them are brothers who get married after their husbands die. Cousin marriage is very popular in the choice of marriage object. Monogamy is the basic marriage system in Yi society, and a few rulers have polygamy.
Cremation prevailed in the history of Yi people. Since the Ming and Qing Dynasties, with the implementation of "returning to the native land" and the deliberate advocacy of the Liuguan government, cremation was gradually abolished in many Yi areas and coffin burial was used instead. Cremation in Liangshan area under slavery has always been popular.
There are some festivals around the country that mark the tradition of the Yi people, among which the Torch Festival is very popular and grand. Sichuan and Yunnan are generally on June 24 in the summer calendar, and Guizhou is mostly on June 6. In Maitreya Mountain in Yunnan and Guishan Mountain in southern Shandong, there are close festivals every winter. Some Yi people in Guizhou and northeastern Yunnan also have the habit of celebrating the New Year in June in the summer calendar and in the winter month.
Section IV Anti-Qing Struggle of the Hui Nationality The Hui Nationality is the abbreviation of the Hui Nationality, and it is a nationality formed by various ethnic elements at home and abroad in the long-term historical development.
At the beginning of the Qing army's entry into the customs, violent measures such as shaving hair and enclosure were carried out in various places, which met with resistance from the people of Han and Hui nationalities. In Hubei Province, the armed "Lao Hui" of Hui farmers, together with Li Zicheng and Zhang, has been fighting against the Ming Dynasty for more than ten years, and now it is involved in the flood of fighting against the Qing Dynasty. In Shandong, Dongchangfu (now Liaocheng), Jining and other places, Hui soldiers joined the garrison at the end of Chongzhen, giving the Qing army a strong resistance. In Guangzhou, three Hui generals, Yu Fengqi, ■ Zhifu and Ma, died because of their persistence in resisting Qing Dynasty, and were called "teaching three religions". In Yunnan, many Hui people participated in the Nanming regime. Later, Wang Gui retreated into Myanmar, and some Hui people who followed Wang Gui were blocked in Tengyue and Baoshan, taking "Ming" as their surname to show their nostalgia for the former dynasty and their unwillingness to yield to the Qing Dynasty. After the Qing army occupied the Shaanxi-Gansu area where the Hui people lived, anti-Qing uprisings broke out one after another. In the fifth year of Shunzhi (1648), Ganzhou uprising was the largest. Under the slogan of "fighting against the Qing Dynasty and regaining sight", they called for the extension of Wang Zhu's knowledge and moved to all parts of Gansu, which lasted for two years and shocked southern Shaanxi.
After the Ganzhou uprising was suppressed, Hao Bi, a Qing soldier, gave the Qing court an idea and suggested that the Qing court use the military power. "There is a secluded place in the tunbao, and the children's clansmen will make other arrangements." Don't be a horse, don't hide weapons, and let it be "taught by one person." It is not enough to control its entry and exit. It is necessary to reclaim the original place of the pasture to eliminate its fierceness. "This is not enough." I still listen to officials like managers from time to time. There is no reason to worry, peace has passed for a long time, real people and the way back to two people. "(1) His suggestion reflects the extreme hostility of feudal officials in the Qing Dynasty to the Hui people.
In terms of policy, the rulers of the Qing Dynasty did not ban Islam as An Baili did, but adopted a policy of allowing Islam to exist, discriminating in many ways and strictly guarding against it. Legally, more than three Hui people who walk with weapons have one more crime; For the crime of relocation, ordinary prisoners can apply for detention, but they cannot apply for return; Moreover, it is also stipulated that the migration site should not be in areas where Hui people live in compact communities, such as Gansu; Huihe's conviction and punishment are also heavier than ordinary prisoners. When Uighur criminals get tattoos, they tattoo the word "Uighur thief" as an insult.
In the forty-six years of Qianlong (178 1) and forty-nine years (1784), Su Sisan, a Salar in Xunhua, Gansu (now Qinghai), and Tian Wu, a Hui people in Shifengbao, Tongwei, revolted twice. The Qing court sent troops to suppress it, and took advantage of the contradiction between Protestantism and the old religion to "forgive one". Taking these two incidents as an excuse, the Governor of Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia and Qinghai issued a notice in 54 years in Qianlong, prohibiting Muslims from believing in Protestantism, prohibiting Han people from believing in Islam, prohibiting Muslims from adopting Han babies and prohibiting the construction of worship temples. After the 43rd Incident in the Soviet Union, the Qing court pushed Panyu County Records to the Soviet Union.
(1) Historical Materials of Ming and Qing Dynasties Volume 7, Part C.
② Records of the Emperor Gaozong in Qing Dynasty (volume 1 127).
Forty-three heads "show the places where Hui people live in various provinces, and each place should be hung for several days to let * * * know what to see" (3). Later, the Qing court moved Shaanxi prefect from xi 'an to Guyuan, and Guyuan's general staff moved to Hezhou (now Linxia), which strengthened the deployment and control of troops in the areas inhabited by Muslims.
The resistance and repression of the Hui people in Gansu spread throughout the country. Officials all over the country are searching for "remaining parties" and "cults" and books that violate the regulations. For this reason, they launched two literary prisons to persecute Muslims. In June of the forty-sixth year of Qianlong, Ma Zhongjie and Ma, Anhui Hui people, seized a package of letters in Lingshi, Shaanxi Province on their way to Guihuacheng (now Hohhot). Because there is a name of "Zhang Jiao" in the letter, it has alarmed Shaanxi and Shaanxi. They think it is someone else who has set up another cult to incite Muslims. Ma Zhongjie was sent back to Xi 'an for trial by Bi Yuan, acting governor of Shaanxi. After repeated rigorous examination, the name Zhang Jiao already exists, and there is no other feeling. Emperor Qianlong gave an order, and he had to admit that "he did too much and didn't understand anything." The accumulation and expansion of this oppression and provocation in the northwest has become one of the main political and historical reasons for the large-scale self-defense struggle of Muslims in the future.
In the second year, in May of the forty-seventh year of Qianlong, another literary inquisition with great influence occurred. In Guilin, Guangxi, it was found that Herry Liu's Chinese works such as Chronicle of One Thousand and One Nights and various Islamic classics in Arabic and Persian were all carried by Huimin Hai Furun in Sanya Village, Yazhou, Guangdong. Dare to call it "true record", think it is "blasphemy", Hai Furun was arrested and imprisoned, and Chun Zhu, governor of Guangxi, flew to relevant provinces to consult and investigate, and reported it to the court. The case spread to Guangxi, Hubei, Jiangsu, Anhui, Yunnan, Guangdong and other provinces, involving writers, prefaces and postscripts, book delivery people, translators and engravers, Tibetan editions and many other aspects. A large number of Hui people's homes and worship temples were searched, and everyone felt insecure. Emperor Qianlong knew that the case had been severely dealt with again and wrote a letter saying that Protestantism in Gansu was a cult and had been eradicated. "As for the old Muslims, there are many in all provinces." "The so-called classics on weekdays are also related to the old ones, and they are not really slandered and destroyed." But these letters also pointed out that; This time, I found that "there are many vulgar words in the book" and "these Muslims are stupid and ignorant, and they all teach each other. If they have to use national laws, they will be disturbed. " This imperial edict reiterated the suppression of Protestantism, acquiesced in the search of religious books and discriminated against Hui people, but worried that it would be too strict to be disturbed. The imperial edict also mentioned the suppression of uprisings in Wang Lun, Shandong Province and Wangfulin, Gansu Province in which the Hui people participated, which was exactly what the Qing rulers used against the Hui soldiers. In the Qing Dynasty, there were indeed many Hui people who served as soldiers and military commanders, such as Ha Sheng Yuan, Ha Panlong, Ha Guoxing, Ye Daxiong, Xu, Ma Jianji, Jiang Changgui and so on. Later, during the Tongzhi period, Ma Xinyi was appointed Governor and Minister of Trade of Liangjiang. This is only used by a small number of people, which does not mean that the political status of the Hui people has improved. On the contrary, with the intensification of ethnic conflicts, a larger anti-Qing storm is brewing among the Hui people.
Agriculture, commerce, industry and agriculture were in a relatively stable environment for a long time in the Qing Dynasty, because enclosure was stopped and reclamation and construction were encouraged (3) Records of Emperor Gaozong of the Qing Dynasty (1 135).
(1) the imperial edict of June 3rd in Qianlong forty-seven years was quoted from the most holy record of Arabian Chronicle in Daoguang seven years. With the implementation of policies such as building water conservancy projects and never increasing taxes in prosperous times, China's feudal economy gradually showed a situation from recovery to development, and the economy and culture of the Hui nationality also had obvious development and changes during this period.
The population of Hui people in various places has doubled and production has developed. The memorial of Bi Yuan, acting governor of Shaanxi Province in the forty-sixth year of Qianlong provided a comprehensive picture of the Hui people in Shaanxi, which was very representative. Bi Yuan said: "Chashan Province belongs to all parts of the country, and there are more Muslims than other provinces. Xi 'an Anfu City, Chang 'an, Weinan, Lintong, Gaoling, Xianyang, Dali and Huazhou, which belong to the same state, and Nanzheng, which belongs to Hanzhong, have more Hui people living in Baozhai and a relatively dense population. There are thousands of Muslims in Xi 'an, the provincial capital, and there are seven worship temples in the city. Xi Anhui people are mostly engaged in agriculture, animal husbandry and trade, and many of them are well-off. They have worked as Wu Zhi, officials, soldiers and imperial examinations. " ① In Gansu, from Ningxia in the east to Pingliang in the west, with Hezhou and Xi 'an as the center, there are many Hui villages. It extends to Hexi, southern Qingshui, Sol Zhang and other places, and is also a place where Hui people live in compact communities. Hui people are scattered in Henan, northern Anhui, Shandong, Hebei and other provinces along the canal. Zhaotong, Huize and Qiaojia have developed in the east of Yunnan, while Dali, Baoshan and Jianchuan have developed in the west.
At the beginning of Qing dynasty, the development of agricultural production of Hui nationality was first manifested in the development of reclamation and farmland water conservancy. After the Ganzhou Incident in Shunzhi, a large number of Hui people fled from Hexi to Xining and built new villages in Baitaer (now Datong) and other places. By the time of Qianlong, the "land reclamation and building houses" had been "exhausted and fished to thousands of households". Many villages in Bayan Rongting (now Hualong) were newly established by the Hui people. The Beichuan camp in Xining, where Hui and Han people live together, "builds tall houses, cultivates land, draws water carts, grows wheat, beans and highland barley" (1), and collects cattle and seeds from local Mongolian nobles, and pays the rent in kind every year. In Hami, Yili, Urumqi, Changji and other places in Xinjiang, the Hui people came here from Shaanxi and Gansu to reclaim land with the Han people in the late Qianlong period, and made achievements. In the early Qing Dynasty, the Hui people from Shandong and Hebei successively went to the Northeast and Inner Mongolia to open up wasteland for business and open up new residential areas. After the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, the Hui people made great achievements in farmland water conservancy. In Ningxia, the Hui and Han nationalities jointly built the navigation channels of Daqing, Huinong, Qixing and Changrun, and the ancient navigation channels of Han Yan and Tanglai were also rebuilt and expanded. The praise of "Wan Li of the Yellow River is rich in Ningxia" was won by people of all ethnic groups in the history who built the Yellow River water conservancy and fought tenaciously and worked hard against natural conditions such as "river collapse and sand pressure". In Yunnan, after hundreds of years of operation in Yuan and Ming Dynasties, most Hui people occupied places with good water conservancy conditions. In Xinxing (now Yuxi), irrigation conditions are good and water can be diverted upward. The place where the Hui people live is "the most fertile land, and drought is not barren". 2. The Han people in E County (now Eshan) and the Hui people in Hexi County jointly built water conservancy projects, and the thousands of acres of fertile land of the Hui people only benefited Hexi County, which reflected the unity of Hui and Han. In Henan, the Yellow River burst in the twenty-first year of Daoguang in Kaifeng (184 1), and twenty-three counties in Henan and Anhui provinces were flooded. Kaifeng was besieged by floods for eight months, and the lives and property of the people returning to Han in the whole city were seriously threatened, and the government was at a loss. In an emergency, more than 700 Hui people and four-street merchants "went to work and didn't get the value." On June 14th, forty-six years of Qianlong, Bi Yuan acted as the governor of Shaanxi Province, and wanted to recall the Chronicle of Arab Holy Records of Daoguang for seven years. (1) dry dragon new knowledge xining mansion.