process
/kloc-in the last 30 years of the 0/9th century and at the beginning of the 20th century, the progress of science and technology and the upsurge of industrial production were called the second industrial revolution in modern history. The world has entered the "electrical age" from "age of steam". During this period, the total industrial output value of some developed capitalist countries exceeded the total agricultural output value; The focus of industry has changed from light textile industry to heavy industry, and emerging industrial sectors such as electricity, chemistry and petroleum have risen. Due to the invention of generators and motors after the 1970s from 65438 to 2009, and the appearance of long-distance transmission technology, the electrical industry has developed rapidly, and electricity has been widely used in production and life. The appearance of internal combustion engine and its wide application after 1990s provided the possibility for the development of automobile and aircraft industry, and also promoted the development of petroleum industry. Chemical industry is a new industrial sector in this period. Since 1980s, people began to extract chemical products such as ammonia, benzene and artificial fuel from coal, and plastics, insulating materials, artificial fibers and smokeless gunpowder were also invented and put into production and use. The original industrial sectors such as metallurgy, shipbuilding, machinery manufacturing, transportation and telecommunications have accelerated technological innovation. The invention and progress of generators and motors in the second industrial revolution The second industrial revolution started from 19 in the 1960s and 1970s, and was basically completed by the end of 19 and the beginning of the 20th century. It is characterized by a large amount of electricity. In the use of electricity, generators and motors are two important components that are interrelated. The generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy; On the other hand, the motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The principle of the generator is based on the magnetic effect of current discovered by Oster in Denmark in 18 19 and the electromagnetic induction phenomenon discovered by Faraday, a British scientist. 1866, Siemens of Germany manufactured a self-excited DC generator. However, this kind of generator is not perfect enough. Through the efforts of many people, the generator was gradually improved and finally put into practical operation in the 1970s. 1882, French scholar Depreux discovered the method of long-distance power transmission; In the same year, American inventor Edison established the first coal-fired power station in new york, connecting power lines into a network. On the other hand, with the rapid growth of power demand and the expansion of power consumption field, DC motors have problems such as high cost and frequent accidents. Therefore, since the 1980s of 19, people have devoted themselves to the research of alternating current. The advantage of alternating current is that it can change the voltage at will through the transformer. The principle of rotating magnetic field put forward by Italian scientist Farari in 1885 is of great significance to the development of AC motors. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, people invented the three-phase asynchronous motor, which has been in use ever since. 189 1 year later, a more economical and reliable three-phase AC system was popularized, and the development of power industry entered a new stage. The invention of internal combustion engine and its application in the second industrial revolution is another great achievement of applied technology in the second industrial revolution. 1876, Otto, a German, made the first four-stroke internal combustion engine fueled by gas, which became a popular low-power machine. 1883, German engineer Daimler manufactured an internal combustion engine fueled by gasoline, which has the characteristics of high horsepower, light weight, small volume and high efficiency, and can be used as the engine of transportation. 1885, German mechanical engineer karl benz made the first car, so Ben Ci was called "the father of cars". This easy-to-start car has three wheels, which rotate about 250 times per minute and the speed is about 15 kilometers per hour. It has a water-cooled single-cylinder engine with a power of 3/4 horsepower, which is ignited by electricity. This car made Ben Ci the first automobile patent. Then in 1897, German engineer Diesel invented an internal combustion engine with simpler structure and cheaper fuel-diesel engine. Although this diesel engine is heavier than the internal combustion engine using gasoline, it is very suitable for heavy transportation. It is not only used for marine engines, but also for locomotives and trucks. As a new means of transportation, the automobile powered by internal combustion engine has also developed rapidly. 65438+ In the 1990s, only a few thousand cars were produced every year in the world, but by the eve of World War I, the annual output of global cars had soared to more than 500,000. The invention and use of internal combustion engine also promoted the development of petroleum exploitation industry and accelerated the emergence of petrochemical industry. 1859, on the eve of the civil war, the United States discovered oil in Pennsylvania and drilled the first oil well, but the oil was originally used only for lighting. With the wide application of internal combustion engines, the demand for fuel oil has soared, and people have begun to exploit and refine oil in large quantities, and the oil output has increased rapidly. The invention of a new communication tool for Morse telegraph. Before the second industrial revolution, wired telegraph had appeared. American Morse produced an electromagnetic telegraph in 1837. Later, he set up an experimental telegraph line with a length of 6 1 km between Washington and Baltimore, and officially completed the major experiment of telegraph communication on May 24, 1944. In particular, Morse used different combinations of long and short pulses to compile the English alphabet code that is still in use today, which is called Morse code. During the second industrial revolution, the development of communication tools made great progress. At the 1876 World Expo in Philadelphia, USA, Bell, who emigrated from Scotland to the United States, displayed a telephone called "Telelistener" at that time, which caused a sensation. Telephone technology has been improved and popularized and developed rapidly. 1880, Bell Telegraph Company was founded in & The predecessor of t). In 1980s, German physicist Hertz proved the existence of electromagnetic wave and measured its wavelength and speed. Italian Marconi used Hertz's discovery to make wireless telegraph communication equipment. 1894, he started the short-distance wireless telegraph experiment with extremely simple devices; 1899, he successfully sent a telegram between Britain and France; Two years later, the transatlantic transmission was successful.
Early car
Another great achievement of the second industrial revolution was the invention and use of the internal combustion engine. From 65438 to 1970s and 1980s, internal combustion engines fueled by gas and gasoline were born one after another, and diesel engines were built successfully in 1990s. The invention of the internal combustion engine solved the engine problem of the vehicle. 1885, German karl benz successfully manufactured the first car driven by an internal combustion engine. Diesel locomotives, ocean-going ships and airplanes have also developed rapidly. The invention of internal combustion engine also promoted the development of oil exploitation and the emergence of petrochemical industry. (leading big countries to start competing for oil. )
Early aircraft
1903 65438+February, the plane driven by internal combustion engine flew into the blue sky, realizing the dream of human beings soaring in the sky. With the extensive use of internal combustion engines, the production and refining technology of petroleum has also been greatly improved. 1870, the world oil output was only about 800,000 tons, and by 1900 it had soared to 20 million tons. 1896, German engineers installed the internal combustion engine on the plane for the first time, and the flight test height reached more than 30 meters, which made an important contribution to the improvement and improvement of flight technology. The Morse telegraph sent a message.
During the second industrial revolution, telecommunications developed particularly rapidly. After the appearance of wired telegraph, telephone and wireless telegraph came out one after another, which provided convenience for the rapid transmission of information. Since then, economic, political and cultural ties around the world have been further strengthened. The establishment of chemical industry is also a major breakthrough in the application and production of science and technology in this period. 1867 Nobel successfully developed explosives and improved smokeless explosives in 1980s, which greatly promoted the development of military industry. In the early 1980s, scientists refined chemical products such as ammonia and benzene. Greatly promoted the development of urban life. The second industrial revolution also promoted the technological innovation and development of some old industrial sectors such as metallurgy, shipbuilding and machine building.
background
(1) time:19 from 1970s to early 20th century (2) conditions: the second industrial revolution.
① Political premise: the establishment of the world capitalist system ② Capital: the accumulation of capital under the production of big machines and the plundering of the export of goods to colonies ③ Technology: the breakthrough of natural science and its rapid transformation to technology ④ Market: Germany, Italy and Japan have opened up a unified domestic market and the initial formation of the capitalist world market ⑤ Environment: a relatively stable domestic and international environment.
trait
Compared with the first industrial revolution, the second industrial revolution has the following three characteristics: first, during the first industrial revolution, many technological inventions came from the practical experience of craftsmen, and science and technology were not really combined; During the second industrial revolution, the new development of natural science began to be closely combined with industrial production, which played a more important role in promoting the development of productive forces scientifically. Its combination with technology has made great achievements in the second industrial revolution. the second industrial revolution
Second, the first industrial revolution first occurred in Britain, and important new machines and new production methods were mainly invented in Britain, while the industrial revolution in other countries developed relatively slowly; The second industrial revolution happened in several advanced capitalist countries almost at the same time, and new technologies and inventions were beyond the scope of a country, with a larger scale and rapid development. Third, at the beginning of the second industrial revolution, some major capitalist countries such as Japan had not completed the first industrial revolution. For them, the two industrial revolutions crossed. They can not only absorb the technological achievements of the first industrial revolution, but also directly use the new technologies of the second industrial revolution. The economic development of these countries is also relatively fast. First of all, the large-scale application of new energy sources such as electricity and coal has directly promoted the great strides of heavy industry, enabling large factories to obtain sustained and effective power supply conveniently and cheaply, thus making large-scale industrial production possible and laying the foundation for subsequent economic monopoly. Secondly, the invention of the internal combustion engine solved the problem of insufficient power that has long plagued mankind. The invention of the internal combustion engine promoted the emergence of the engine, which solved the problem of transportation, promoted the rapid development of automobiles, ocean-going ships and airplanes, made human footprints spread all over the world, and facilitated cultural and trade exchanges in various regions. Third, the invention of communication tools. Since Bell invented the telephone in the 1970s, the communication between people is not limited to face-to-face conversation. Fourth, the rapid development of productive forces directly led to the birth of monopoly capitalism and later imperialism, and the inevitable contradiction of capitalism was also revealed in the financial crisis of 1929. Finally, the rapid development of chemical industry. The invention of explosives greatly promoted the progress of military industry and eventually led to the outbreak of World War I.. Various compounds, plastics and man-made fibers extracted from coal have been put into practical life. The above four great inventions played a decisive role in the second industrial revolution. Humans began to acquire pure knowledge through scientific research, and then in turn promoted the application of theory. Impact on the world: The rapid development of productive forces has changed the social structure and the world situation. The bourgeoisie has mastered the advanced productive forces, its strength is growing day by day, and it has begun to establish its rule over the world. The scale of enterprises is also growing, and the concentration of production and capital has contributed to the formation of monopoly organizations.
Major achievements
(1) power is widely used: Siemens-generator, gram-motor; (2) The creation of internal combustion engines and new vehicles: Karl? Ben Ci-car driven by internal combustion engine, Wright brothers-plane; (3) Development of telecommunications: Bell-telephone, Marconi-wireless telegraph (4) Establishment of chemical industry: Nobel-explosives (plastics, man-made fibers).
Influence of various aspects
(1) Economy: ① The rapid improvement of productivity has promoted the rapid development of capitalist economy; (2) relations of production, monopoly and monopoly organizations have been formed, and major capitalist countries have entered the stage of imperialism; (3) Economic structure, heavy industry has developed by leaps and bounds and gradually occupied a dominant position; (4) Industrial layout, forming two major industrial zones in Western Europe and North America; (5) World economic structure, with Britain losing its position as a world factory and surpassing Britain and France in virtue strength; The capitalist world market was finally formed. ⑥ Energy structure, people, livestock, wind, water, coal, electricity and oil ② Politics: ① Political system has formed a relatively sound capitalist political model characterized by representative democracy, party politics and civil liberties ② Socialist movement has promoted the new development of workers' movement and socialist movement and the birth of Leninism. (3) Foreign policy: the powers stepped up their foreign aggression and expansion, carved up the world, and finally formed a colonial system; Changes in the way of aggression (mainly commodity export-mainly capital export). A train drawn by a steam locomotive
(4) Democratic national movement: promoted the development of new national liberation movement (5) international relations (world political pattern), and the capitalist world system was finally formed; The first world war. (3) ideology and culture: ① monopolism; 2 ideology; Enhance the sense of competition and participation; (4) Lifestyle: improve daily life, especially in clothing and transportation; Ideology; (5) Environmental problems, the appearance of automobiles, promoted the large-scale use of oil, increased the concentration of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons in the atmosphere, and produced air pollution problems such as photochemical smog.
Impact on China
From 65438 to 70' s, the second industrial revolution arose, and western countries needed to carry out colonial activities on a larger scale, competing for commodity markets, raw material producing areas and investment places. As the territory of the whole world was divided up, China became the center of their plunder. The influence of this industrial revolution on the history of China: the second industrial revolution.
1. The semi-colonial and semi-closed degree of China has deepened. Because the second industrial revolution improved productivity again, European countries set off a new wave of colonial expansion in order to constantly compete for raw materials and resources and world hegemony, and also carried out more cruel commodity dumping and war plunder on China. For example, the Japanese launched the Sino-Japanese War and Eight-Nation Alliance invaded China. 2. The development and exploration of China's national capitalism sprouted in the late Ming Dynasty and had a brief development in the first industrial revolution. With the second industrial revolution, China's national capitalism developed again, and the slogan of saving the country by industry began to appear. Later, it reached a short spring during the Revolution of 1911 and the First World War. This is the inevitable result of the development trend of world history. 3. China's modernization process further accelerated the second industrial revolution.
After the second industrial revolution, China was also deeply affected. The Westernization Movement under the supervision of the Qing government introduced a series of advanced technologies from the west, and by the second industrial revolution, the first batch of modern enterprises in China were founded, which indirectly accelerated the process of modernization in China and provided conditions for the later development of capitalism. 4. The change of China's main ideological trend The early enlightenment thought, coupled with the rapid development of productive forces brought by the industrial revolution, made Europeans' thoughts begin to progress. Capitalism's innate human rights and equality for all have become the mainstream ideas in Europe, and have also influenced some progressive people in China. They not only learned the advanced technology in Europe, but also began to accept advanced ideas, which provided the necessary foundation for the later development of capitalism in China and the launch of the Revolution of 1911. 5。 Capitalism in China began to lead the revolution. With the deepening of semi-colonial and semi-closed China and ethnic contradictions, capitalism began to dominate China's revolutionary road. After the failure of the peasant-led revolution (Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, Boxer Movement), capitalist democracy and ideas began to be gradually accepted and adapted by the people of China. Finally, the Revolution of 1911 led by Sun Yat-sen overthrew the feudal monarchy and established a * * * harmonious country.
cartel
Produce (1) Under the impetus of the second industrial revolution, the capitalist economy began to undergo major changes, and production and capital were highly concentrated, resulting in monopoly. By the end of19th century, monopoly organizations had appeared in major capitalist countries. A motorcycle made by Stephenson.
(2) Monopoly organizations mainly include cartels, syndicates and trusts. (1) The emergence of monopoly organizations is the result of the development of productive forces, which promotes the development of production to a certain extent, further expands the scale of enterprises and improves labor productivity. (2) Monopoly capitalists are increasingly interfering in the country's economic and political life. Capitalist countries have gradually become representatives of the interests of monopoly organizations. Monopoly organizations also crossed national boundaries and formed international monopoly groups, demanding economic division of the world, which prompted capitalist countries to step up their foreign aggression and expansion. (3) 19 At the end of the 20th century, major capitalist countries successively entered the stage of monopoly capitalism, that is, the stage of imperialism.
Comparison between the First Industrial Revolution and the Second Industrial Revolution
(1) Impact on Productivity:1After the first industrial revolution in the 8th century, human society glowed with great productivity and products were enriched at once. The roar of the steam engine resounded through every corner of Europe, and the mode of production of the whole society has undergone tremendous changes. However, people's needs are endless. On the one hand, the development of production has created increasingly rich products, on the other hand, it has also created new social needs. This requires new products, new machines, new industrial sectors and new production technologies. (2) The influence on the relations of production: The industrial revolution initiated the large machinery industry, making the workshop handicraft industry a distant past. Interrupted the process of agricultural society and established the factory system. However, the second industrial revolution was carried out within the large machinery industry. The rise and fall of this big industry has a gradual impact on the social structure and has not fundamentally changed the mode of production. (3) Impact on capitalism: During the industrial revolution, capitalism gained a dominant position. The second industrial revolution made capitalism transition from liberal capitalism to monopoly capitalism. (4) In which department did it first rise? The industrial revolution started from the cotton textile industry, marked by the use of steam engines and the establishment of the capitalist factory system, and completed the first industrial leap. The second industrial revolution that followed began with the transformation of heavy industry, marked by the application of electricity, and ended with the great change of industrial structure. (5) Differences in industrial development: Many industrial sectors emerged in the second industrial revolution were rooted in the industrial revolution, but only broke ground in the industrial revolution. Such as steel, coal, mechanical processing and other industries have not completely got rid of the original production state, which is not the same as the large-scale industrial production after the second industrial revolution. In the second industrial revolution, the new development of these old industries led to the emergence of new industrial sectors such as petroleum, electric power, chemical industry, automobile and aviation, which made the whole industry look brand-new. During the second industrial revolution, not only the traditional steel industry and machinery processing industry have undergone fundamental changes, but also a series of industrial sectors such as electricity, chemicals, automobiles and petroleum have emerged. This is another truly great change, which has greatly improved the material life of mankind and surpassed the results of the first change. This is the second leap in the industrialization process. (6) Impact on international relations: The industrial revolution made Britain stand out from the agricultural society at first, and with cheap textiles, Britain accumulated a lot of wealth and became a "world factory". The second industrial revolution first started in the United States and Germany, which made them jump up and shocked the world with emerging industries such as steel, oil, electric power, chemical industry and aviation. After this transformation, the industries of the United States and Germany are far ahead of those of Britain and France.