The famous reform events in Chinese history include: Li Kui’s Reform in Wei, Wu Qi’s Reform in Chu, Zou Ji’s Reform in Qi, Shen Buhu’s Reform in South Korea, Shang Yang’s Reform in Qin, and Shang Yang’s Reform in Song Dynasty. Wang Anshi’s Reform, the Qing Dynasty’s Reform Movement of 1898, etc.

Li Kui's Reform

Li Kui's Reform refers to the appointment of Li Kui as the prime minister when Wei Wenhou of the Wei State during the Warring States Period was in power and carried out reforms. Politically, Li Kui advocated the abolition of the privileges of hereditary nobles, the selection of talents, and strict rewards and punishments. Economically, we mainly implement the method of purchasing according to our best efforts. It greatly promoted the development of Wei's agricultural production and made Wei rich and powerful. In order to further implement the reform and consolidate the results of the reform, the criminal codes of various countries were collected and compiled into the book "The Book of Laws" to affirm and protect the reform in the form of law and fix feudal legal rights. Li Kui's reform in Wei State was the beginning of China's reform and had a profound impact on Chinese history. At that time, it shocked other countries greatly, triggering the first vigorous national reform in Chinese history, paving the way for the transition from slavery to feudalism. Later famous Shang Yang's reforms and Wu Qi's reforms were all influenced by Li Kui's reforms.

Significance and influence:

Li Kui's reforms not only made the Wei state rich and powerful quickly, but also had great significance in Chinese history. Starting from Li Kui, the political, legal, military, economic, and cultural reforms in the Warring States Period gradually entered a deeper and broader level, that is, changes in the entire social structure and system. As a result, Chinese civilization entered a broader and deeper stage.

Evaluation:

Li Kui's reform was the first successful reform in the history of Chinese feudal society. Its content has important social and historical significance, and there are profound reasons for its success. Li Li's reform not only opened the prelude to the reform movement during the Warring States Period, but also established the private ownership of land and the individual small farmer economy for the first time in the Wei State, which was a symbol of the formal establishment of the feudal system in Chinese history.

Wu Qi’s Reform:

Wu Qi’s Reform was the appointment of Wu Qi from 386 BC to 381 BC when King Chu Mou was in power in the early Warring States Period (440 BC to 381 BC). As Ling Yin, he carried out the reform movement to reform the politics, law, and military of Chu State. In 381 BC, King Chu Mourning died. The reform was strongly opposed by the old nobles and ended in failure. However, after the reform, the state of Chu began to become stronger and stronger, and in 381 BC, it united with the state of Zhao to defeat the state of Wei.

Influence and significance:

Wu Qi’s reforms aimed at enriching the country and strengthening its army. The appointment of virtuous people hit the vested political and economic interests of the great nobility of Chu State, and was fiercely opposed by the great nobility. It was a movement to attack the political and economic privileges of the hereditary nobility.

Wu Qi’s reforms made the state of Chu strong and powerful. He attacked Baiyue in the south and expanded the Chu state’s territory to Dongting Lake and Cangwu County. In 381 BC, the State of Chu sent troops to assist the State of Zhao and fought a battle with the Wei army in the west of the state. The Chu army passed through Liangmen, garrisoned in the forest, and drank their horses in the Yellow River, cutting off the connection between the Hanoi County of Wei and the capital Anyi. With the help of Chu's offensive, Zhao State attacked Jipu and captured Huangcheng. Chu and Zhao defeated the Wei army.

Wu Qi's reform promoted the transformation of Chu's aristocratic politics into bureaucratic politics. It also affected Shang Yang's reforms in Qin.

Zou Ji's Reform:

King Wei of Qi and Zou Ji carried out political reforms, accepted the opinions of their ministers, paid attention to selecting talents, removed incompetent and traitorous officials, and rewarded capable generals and officials. Their purpose It is to consolidate the ruling order while seeking the prosperity of the country, which is naturally conducive to the development of social production. Therefore, after some reforms, Qi State had a new look politically and economically.

Influence:

As King Wei of Qi carried out reforms and implemented monarchical centralization and rule of law, Qi gradually became stronger. In 353 BC, Wei was defeated for the first time at Guiling, and in 343 BC, Wei was defeated again at Maling. "So Qi was the strongest among the princes and proclaimed himself king to rule the world." ("Historical Records" by Tian Jingzhong) Family").

Shen Buhai's Reform:

Shen Buhai's Reform was a reform in South Korea by the Legalist figure Shen Buhai during the Warring States Period. In addition to talking about the rule of law like other Legalist figures, Shen Buhai mainly emphasized the "technique" of the monarch's rule, that is, the method of appointing, supervising, and evaluating his ministers. He believed that when the monarch appoints officials, he must examine whether they are worthy of their name, whether they are competent in their work, whether their words and deeds are consistent, and whether they are loyal to the monarch, and then promote and remove them based on what they learn. The introduction of "skills" was of great significance for the establishment of the examination system for the appointment and dismissal of officials at that time. The reform stabilized South Korea's domestic political situation, restricted the privileges of the aristocracy, and made people's lives increasingly prosperous.

Shang Yang's Reform:

After Qin Xiaogong of the Qin State during the Warring States Period came to the throne, he was determined to strengthen reforms and ordered the recruitment of talents. Shang Yang entered Qin from Wei and put forward a set of reform and development strategies such as abandoning well fields, focusing on agriculture and mulberry, awarding military merits, implementing unified measurement and establishing a county system. He won the trust of Qin Xiaogong and appointed him as the chief of Zuo Shu. , in 356 BC and 350 BC, two reforms were implemented with the main content of "abolition of well fields, opening of roads, implementing the system of counties and counties, rewarding farming, weaving and fighting, and implementing the law of continuous sitting".

Impact and Significance:

Shang Yang’s Reform was a successful reform in ancient China and was recorded as Xinfa. It made Qin a powerful country and laid the foundation for the future unification of the six countries by Qin. The country laid the foundation and determined the idea of ??rule of law.

Shang Yang learned from the experience of Legalists such as Li Kui and Wu Qi in implementing reforms in Wei, Chu and other countries, and combined with the specific conditions of Qin State, further developed the Legalist policies. After catching up from behind, the reforms achieved greater results. He further abolished the well-field system, expanded the mu system, focused on agriculture and suppressed business, rewarded households for men farming and women weaving, and encouraged land reclamation, which promoted the development of Qin's small-scale peasant economy. He generally implemented the county system, formulated laws, unified the weights and measures system, and established a centralized monarchy. He banned private fighting, rewarded military merit, and established a twenty-level nobility system, which was conducive to strengthening the army's combat effectiveness. He attacked the old aristocrats who opposed the reform and "burned poems and books to clarify the laws", so that the reform laws could be implemented. Because of all this, Qin quickly became rich and powerful, laying the foundation for Qin to unify all of China. As Wang Chong of the Han Dynasty said: "Shang Yang's filial piety to the Duke opened up the empire for Qin." ("Lun Heng·Shu Jie Chapter")

After Shang Yang's reform, Qin's economy changed the old In terms of production relations, the private ownership of land was fundamentally established by abolishing minefields and opening up roads; politically, the old bloodline patriarchal system was attacked and disintegrated, making the feudal state mechanism more complete, and the construction of a centralized system began; militaryally, military merits were rewarded, It achieved the goal of strengthening the army, greatly improved the combat effectiveness of the army, and developed into the most powerful feudal country in the late Warring States Period. It created favorable conditions for Qin's next strategic development and laid the foundation for the unification of the country.

Shang Yang’s reform had a profound impact on the subsequent Qin State and Qin Dynasty. The "Qin Code" unearthed in Yunmeng was revised, supplemented and accumulated on the basis of this reform. "Qin Code" also talks about the law of joint sitting in many places. For example, if the household registration is concealed or false, not only the township officials will be punished, but also the "Wu" people will be fined one shield per household, and "all will be moved" (that is, they will be punished for guarding the border). . The "Qin Code" also gave top priority to suppressing "thieves" and used severe penalties for minor crimes. For example, those who steal from one to two hundred and twenty coins must be "moved", those who steal more than two hundred and twenty coins and those who steal more than six hundred and sixty coins must be punished as prisoners respectively, those who steal cattle must be punished as prisoners, and those who steal cattle must be punished as prisoners. Those who work sheep or pigs are also punished accordingly, and even those who steal other people's mulberry leaves for less than a penny will have to "corvee for thirty days" (that is, they will be punished with thirty days of corvee). "Group thieves" with more than five people will be pursued and punished more severely. At the same time, the "Qin Code" also has many provisions on the pursuit and punishment of various fugitives.

Liu Yu's Reform:

Liu Yu's political and economic rectification further attacked the corrupt and dark aristocrats and gentry forces, improved the political and social conditions, and exerted a great influence on the working people. The pain is also reduced. It laid a solid political foundation for the "Government of Yuanjia" and also laid the prototype of the politics of the Southern Dynasties.

Influence and significance:

Although Liu Yuben was traveling in the military and was not very literate, he attached great importance to education. In the first month of the third year of Yongchu (422), an edict was issued: "In ancient times, when a country was founded, teaching came first, and teaching the world by promoting the wind was not more important than this. Enlightenment and enlightenment were stagnant, and they must be followed. Therefore, from the time when the king was prosperous, to modern times, Everyone admires learning and crafts, and builds harems. Since ancient times, troops and horses have been in the suburbs, and banners are flying, and there is no time to give them. Therefore, the schools are abandoned, lectures are recited, and the military is kept in ruins. , will fall to the ground. Later generations are afraid of the wall, so I always sigh in "Guofeng", so I remember the past in "Xiaoya". Scholars, the sun and the moon look forward to the future. They benefit from the promotion of talents, reward young men with pottery, and promote Confucianism. The master studies the old classics and implements them according to the time. This consolidated the rule of the Song Dynasty and also improved the social atmosphere. He was the most accomplished and accomplished emperor in the Eastern Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties. The reforms he made promoted social progress and promoted the development of history. Since then, there have been many politicians in the Southern Dynasties such as Emperor Wen of Song, Emperor Gao of Qi, Emperor Wu of Liang, and Emperor Chen Wu, but it is not difficult to find that their reform measures basically followed Liu Yu's reforms.

Liu Yu's political and economic rectification further attacked the corrupt and dark aristocracy and gentry forces, improved the political and social conditions, and alleviated the suffering of the working people. It laid a solid political foundation for the "Government of Yuanjia" and the embryonic form of the politics of the Southern Dynasties.

Wang Anshi's Reform:

Wang Anshi's Reform was a social reform movement launched by Wang Anshi during the Shenzong period of the Song Dynasty to change the situation of poverty and weakness since the founding of the Northern Song Dynasty. The reform began in the second year of Xining (1069) and ended with the death of Song Shenzong in the eighth year of Yuanfeng (1085), so it is also called Xining Reform and Xifeng Reform.

Wang Anshi’s reform was aimed at developing production, enriching the country and strengthening the army, and rescuing the political crisis of the Song Dynasty. It centered on "financial management" and "reorganization of the army" and involved all aspects of politics, economy, military, society, and culture. It was It was another huge social change movement in ancient Chinese history after Shang Yang's Reform. The reform changed the situation of poverty and weakness in the Northern Song Dynasty to a certain extent, enriched the government finances, improved the national defense strength, and also cracked down on and restricted the illegal profiteering of the feudal landlord class and big businessmen. However, during the implementation of the reform, due to the untimeliness of some measures and poor operation in actual implementation, the interests of the people were harmed to varying degrees (such as the Ma Bao Ma Law and the Young Crops Law). In addition, the new law touched the fundamental interests of the big landlord class. , so they met with strong opposition, and it ended with the death of Song Shenzong in the eighth year of Yuanfeng (1085).

Impact:

The fundamental purpose of Wang Anshi's reform was to change the situation of poverty and weakness in the Northern Song Dynasty, enhance the ability of external defense and internal suppression, so as to consolidate and strengthen feudal rule. It took nearly fifteen years from the time the new law was implemented to the time when the new law was abolished by the conservative faction. In the past fifteen years, although every new law has inevitably produced some major or minor drawbacks after its implementation, it has basically achieved some effects. The effect of "riching the country and strengthening the army" is very significant.

Changes in the poverty situation

Government revenue has increased significantly. Through the implementation of a series of new financial management laws, the state has added new fiscal revenue items such as "young crops money", "residue money for exemption from labor", "market interest money", etc. On the basis of developing production and equalizing taxation, the fiscal revenue has There was a significant increase, and the national treasury was abundant. During the reign of Emperor Shenzong of the Song Dynasty, the national treasury savings could provide the court with twenty years of fiscal expenditure. The rapid increase in fiscal revenue completely changed the "poverty" situation in the Northern Song Dynasty.

The new law restrained the merger power of powerful landlords to a certain extent. The Young Crops Law replaced the usury loans of the upper class households and restricted the exploitation of farmers by loan sharks; Hiding tax evasion in the fields, the Market Exchange Law allows part of the business profits monopolized by big businessmen to be returned to the state, cracking down on the manipulation of the market by big businessmen, and the implementation of the Monopoly Exemption Law has alleviated the tax exploitation suffered by farmers, and vigorously built farmland. Water conservancy projects have played a huge role in the development of agricultural production, social and economic development, and the reduction of people's burdens, showing a prosperity unprecedented in a century.

Improvement of the situation of poverty and weakness

Changing the phenomenon of "poverty and weakness" is the general policy of Wang Anshi's reform, and enriching the country and strengthening the army is the overall purpose of the reform. Through the implementation of the "Strong Military Method", the weak situation was alleviated and the national power of the Northern Song Dynasty was enhanced. The implementation of the Baojia Law strengthened the feudal ruling order in rural areas, maintained social security in rural areas, established a national military reserve, and saved a lot of training costs; the disarmament law improved the quality of army soldiers; the disarmament law improved the quality of army soldiers, The Law of War changed the separation of soldiers and generals and strengthened the combat effectiveness of the army; the Horse Protection Law greatly improved the quality and quantity of horses, and the government saved a lot of horse-raising costs; the Ordnance Supervision Law increased the production of weapons and improved their quality. .

The reform measures to strengthen the army reversed the passive situation of the northwest frontier defense which had suffered repeated defeats for a long time. In the sixth year of Xining in the Northern Song Dynasty (1073), under the command of Wang Anshi, Wang Shao, the pacification envoy of the Xihe Road of the Song Dynasty, led his army to attack Tubo and regained the five prefectures of He, Tao and Min. Ten thousand tents, this was an unprecedented military victory in the Northern Song Dynasty, and it also established a favorable front for attacking the Xixia region.

The Reform Movement of 1898:

The Reform Movement of 1898, also known as the Hundred Days Reform, refers to the bourgeois reformism with Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao as the main leaders from June to September 21, 1898 Through Emperor Guangxu, he advocated political reform movements such as learning from the West, advocating science and culture, reforming the political and educational systems, and developing agriculture, industry, and commerce. However, the Reform Movement of 1898 met with strong resistance and opposition because it harmed the interests of the conservative faction headed by the Empress Dowager Cixi. On September 21, 1898, the Empress Dowager Cixi and others launched the 1898 Reform Movement. Emperor Guangxu was imprisoned in Yingtai, Zhongnanhai. The reformists Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao fled to France and Japan respectively. Tan Sitong, Kang Guangren, Lin Xu, Yang Shenxiu, Yang Rui and Liu Guang were killed. The 103-day reform failed.

Impact:

Although the Reform Movement of 1898 failed, Emperor Guangxu was imprisoned by Cixi in Yingtai, South China Sea, surrounded by water on three sides. Kang Youwei fled to Hong Kong and later to Canada. On July 20, 1899, he organized the Royalist Association, also known as the Chinese Reform Association, to praise Emperor Guangxu and advocate constitutional monarchy. Liang Qichao fled to Japan and founded the "Qing Yi Bao" to slander Cixi. Queen Mother.

When Kang and Liang were fleeing, news came from the palace that Kang Youwei had poisoned Emperor Guangxu. Later, it was reported that Guangxu had been ill for a long time and was being tutored by the Queen Mother. There are a lot of discussions among the people, and there are rumors at home and abroad that Emperor Guangxu is no longer alive. Liu Kunyi, the governor of Liangjiang, warned: "People are in danger, and powerful neighbors are looking around, and it is inevitable to resort to military means." The then British Minister to China Dou Nale also said that if Emperor Guangxu dies, all countries will not forgive him. As a result, Ouchi allowed the French embassy doctor to enter the palace to diagnose and treat Guangxu, and there was no serious problem.

The conservative ministers were afraid that Guangxu would be resentful in the future, so they encouraged Empress Dowager Cixi to depose Guangxu, but the discussion was unresolved. After hearing the news, ministers from various countries went to court on New Year's Day to question the reasons. Empress Dowager Cixi was afraid of causing interference from the great powers. In order to test the attitude of the great powers, she followed Ronglu's suggestion and issued an edict in the name of Emperor Guangxu on January 24, 1900, saying that she could not give birth to an heir. The 15-year-old son of Prince Zaiyi of Liduan County was Pu Jun was the eldest brother, and was known as Jihai Jianchu in history.

However, as soon as the edict came out, the whole country was in an uproar. On January 27, 1900, Jing Yuanshan, the general office of the Shanghai Telegraph Bureau, led a telegram requesting Emperor Guangxu to "prepare the emperor as soon as possible and do not think about abdicating the throne." . The signatories include Ye Han, Ma Yuzao, Zhang Binglin, Wang Yinian, Ding Huikang, Shen Xin, Tang Cichang, Jing Hengyi, Cai Yuanpei, Huang Yanpei and other 1,231 people. At the same time, the "Announcement to All Provinces" was issued, asking the provincial leaders to work together. "If the court refuses to pay attention, please ask our industrial and commercial merchants to go on strike to discuss the matter." Ministers from various countries believed that the incident of setting up a governor would affect the stability of China's situation, so they issued warnings and refused to congratulate him.

Empress Dowager Cixi was deeply resentful of the foreign powers. Instigated by conservative ministers, she adopted a laissez-faire attitude toward the Boxer Rebellion, which ultimately led to the catastrophic invasion of the Eight-Power Allied Forces.

At first, the reformers sought methods of political reform within the Qing system. However, after the 1898 Coup, they became criminals arrested by the government. The 1898 Coup of 18 brought this group of people to meet the revolutionaries in Japan. At that time, Miyazaki Toten, Inukai Takeshi, and other Japanese ronin who were enthusiastic about the China issue worked hard to bring together the "Xingzhonghui" (Sun Wen) who was also in Japan. The "reformer" (Kang Youwei) hoped that the two parties could join hands in rebellion. The 1898 Coup directly led to the Xia Reform Party's attempt to cooperate with the Revolutionary Party in 1900, and they took advantage of the Boxer Rebellion incident and the Eight-Power Allied Forces to launch an uprising by the Self-Reliant Army. After the failure of the reform uprising, they were replaced by revolutionaries who advocated the overthrow of the Manchu Qing Dynasty, radical changes, and the overthrow of the original system and government. Finally, the Qing Dynasty also came to an end.

Evaluation:

As a reform movement of bourgeois nature in modern China, the Reform Movement of 1898 was of progressive significance. Although it was strangled by the Empress Dowager Cixi, it also laid the ideological foundation for the Revolution of 1911 that broke out 13 years later.

1. Promoted the self-reform of the Qing government. In 1900, when the Eight-Power Allied Forces invaded, Empress Dowager Cixi fled to Xi'an with Guangxu, which taught Cixi a painful lesson. After signing the "Xinchou Peace Treaty", Empress Dowager Cixi ordered the implementation of the New Deal, which included training the new army; abolishing the imperial examination and building schools; rewarding private factories; reforming the legal system; sending five ministers overseas to inspect and prepare for the establishment of a constitution; establishing the Advisory Council and the Advisory Council. Yikju etc. Some of these reforms have gone beyond the contents of the reform laws of that year.

Second, it aroused public resentment against the Manchu government and promoted the transformation of intellectuals from reform to revolution. After the failure of the 1898 Coup, the number of people supporting Sun Yat-sen's revolution increased, and many intellectuals who had illusions about the Qing government became revolutionaries.

3. Promoted China’s ideological emancipation movement.

(1) The theory of reform is more deeply rooted in the hearts of the people. People generally believe that there is no way out if there is no change, and that change is the principle of ancient and modern times. China should also undergo major changes and complete changes.

(2) Democratic ideas spread further. The reformers only dare to talk about "civil rights" and recognize the people's right to participate in political management, but they dare not talk about "democracy" and refuse to recognize that the people are the masters of the country and society. After the Reform Movement of 1898, the democratic trend of thought fully developed.

(3) It sparked a new round of craze for seeking truth from the West to save the country. After the failure of the Reform Movement of 1898, more young people went abroad to study, more Western doctrines were translated and introduced to China, and China's ideological circles became more active.

4. It became the prelude to the May Fourth New Culture Movement. After the Reform Movement of 1898, new cultural undertakings flourished, and there was a craze in running schools, founding new newspapers and periodicals, and publishing new books in the country. During the Reform Movement of 1898, in order to "enlighten" the people, the reformers advocated vernacular literature and "revolution in the novel world." After the failure of the reform movement, more vernacular newspapers and periodicals appeared, and vernacular literature was more promoted. In addition to the "revolution in the novel world", the reformers continued to advocate the "revolution in the world of poetry", "revolution in the world of music", "revolution in thought", "moral revolution", "religious revolution" and even "revolution in history".