After the opening of the Long Parliament, opposition members fiercely criticized the king's policies and arrested the king's favorites, the Earl of Stratford and Archbishop Laud. Charles I vigorously defended them, but the masses in London continued to demonstrate. Frightened by the power of the people, the king was forced to sign Stratford's death sentence in May 1641. Two days later, this notorious favorite was hanged.
Parliament also passed the "Three Years Act", which stipulated that Parliament should be convened at least once every three years and that the king could not dissolve Parliament without the consent of Parliament. It abolished the "Royal Court", "Northern Council" and "Supreme Court", the privileged institutions of feudal autocracy.
In November 1641, Parliament passed the "Great Protest", with 204 articles in full. It enumerates the atrocities of Charles I and requires the king to guarantee freedom of industry and commerce, and the government's responsibility to parliament. Charles I not only refused to ratify the Great Protest, but also declared Pym, Hampton and other opposition leaders as "rebellious".
In January 1642, he personally led people to arrest Pym and others, but was strongly opposed by the people in London. In view of the rising revolutionary enthusiasm of the people in London and the overwhelming strength of the royalists, Charles I left London on January 10 and went north to York City to organize the royalist army. On August 22, Charles I planted the flag of the royal army in Nottingham, announced a crusade against the rebels in Parliament, and provoked the first civil war.
After the civil war began, Britain was divided into two camps: those who supported the king were mainly feudal nobles, upper-class Anglican monks, and some big bourgeoisie and bureaucrats who had close ties with the king. They are mostly Anglicans and Catholics. Those who stood on the side of Parliament were mainly the new aristocracy, the bourgeoisie, urban commoners, craftsmen and yeoman farmers. Most of them are Puritans.
Judging from the balance of power between the two sides, the Parliament has an absolute advantage.
The area controlled by Parliament is the southeastern region including London. The economy here is developed, the population is dense, the products are rich, and the financial resources are sufficient. More than 4/5 of the national tax revenue comes from these regions. Parliament occupies important ports and naval fleets, which can cut off the king's army from sea connections with the outside world. The parliamentary army has a larger number (about 6,000 people) and has the support of the people.
The areas controlled by the king are the western and northern areas. The economy here is backward, the population is sparse, and the financial resources are insufficient. The royal army only had 2,000 people, only 1/4 of the parliamentary army.
However, in the first two years of the civil war, the parliamentary army suffered many defeats, but the royal army took the strategic initiative. There are three reasons for this: First, although there are many soldiers in the Parliament, most of them are militiamen without military training; while most of the soldiers in the King's Army are loyal professional soldiers, and their combat effectiveness is naturally strong. Second, in the hearts of the British people at that time, the king was still majestic and noble, so many people did not support the parliamentary army, but took a wait-and-see attitude. Third, most of the parliamentary officers were cautious and incompetent and inferior to the king's officers. On September 9, 1642, the third Earl of Essex, commander-in-chief of the Parliamentary Army, led the army to march north from London. After the troops reached Northampton, the parliamentary army had reached nearly 20,000 people. However, Essex did not take the initiative to attack with superior force, but formed a line to show off its power and waited for the king to "change his mind." Knowing that he was alone and weak, Charles I left Nottingham on September 13th for the southwestern region where royalist forces were strong, and arrived in Shrewsbury on the 20th to set up camp.
Essex also led his army westward on September 23. During this period, the situation changed greatly. The king recruited many soldiers in some counties in the central and western regions and Wales. Feudal landowners, Catholic nobles and their accompanying cavalry came to join the army, and the number of the king's army increased greatly. Taking advantage of Essex's passive waiting, the king secretly left Shrewsbury on October 12 and headed for London. Three days later, Essex learned of the news and hurried back to catch up. On October 22, the leading troops of the Parliamentary Army caught up with the Royal Army at Mount Edge near Keyington in Warwickshire.
On the 23rd, the two sides had their first large-scale battle. The royal army invested about 7,000 troops, and the parliamentary army participated in the battle with 7,500 troops. At about 14:00, the two armies started fighting. As soon as Lord Fortescue led the parliamentary army to attack, they were met with a powerful counterattack by the cavalry commanded by Prince Rupert, nephew of Charles I. The parliamentary army cavalry on both wings fled miserably. However, the young and energetic Prince Rupert was brave and reckless. He only pursued fiercely and chased for more than 2 miles without understanding the entire battlefield situation.
Although the cavalry on both wings of the Parliamentary Army retreated, the infantry in the center, with the support of artillery, repelled the attack of the Royal Army's infantry and counterattacked, defeating it. The Earl of Lindsay, commander of the royal infantry, was wounded and captured, and the king's banner also fell into the hands of the parliamentary army. The king was left alone for a time and almost captured. Fortunately, Rupert led the royal cavalry to return to the battlefield in time and saved the king. At this time, the king's army was defeated and in chaos. But Essex failed to take advantage of the victory and attack.
That night, both sides spent the night on the battlefield. At dawn the next day, Charles I discovered that 1/3 of his infantry and many royalists had left the team without permission due to the cold weather, lack of food, and fear of fighting, so he had to temporarily cease fighting and rest. After the parliamentary rearguard troops arrived, their strength became even stronger. However, Essex was satisfied with the results and moved his base camp westward to Warwick, giving the royal army a breathing space.
In the battle of Mount Aegis, the two sides ended in a draw, with no winner in sight. The Parliamentarian soldiers suffered more casualties, while the Royal Army officers suffered greater losses. Both sides claimed victory. The king took advantage of the parliamentary army's westward retreat, gathered his troops, and quietly marched toward London. Oxford was captured on October 29, and Brentford, only 7 miles away from London, was captured on November 12. The capital was in a hurry.
At this critical moment, more than 4,000 London militia teams composed of craftsmen, apprentices and urban civilians rushed to the front line. It also joined forces with the parliamentary army led by Essex, greatly increasing the number of parliamentary troops and boosting their morale. Charles I was forced to abandon his plan to attack London due to limited troops. However, Essex ordered no pursuit and could only defend passively. Charles I was able to retreat calmly to Oxford. The king's army spent the winter on the spot, accumulating strength and preparing to fight again next year.
Although the crisis in London was lifted, the overall military situation in 1643 was still very unfavorable to the parliamentary army. In the north, the royal army occupied several large cities in Yorkshire and moved south to attack Lincolnshire. The Western King's army drove the Parliamentary army out of South Wales and occupied Dorsetshire.
On July 26, Prince Rupert led the royal army to capture Bristol, Britain's second largest port city, captured a large amount of supplies, and turned the port into a "military warehouse" for the royal army. . Subsequently, the prince led his army to besiege Gloucester, the western important town of the Parliamentary Army. In the southwest, the parliamentary army commanded by General Waller was almost completely destroyed. In the autumn of the same year, Wang Junbing attacked London in three groups, and the capital was once again in danger.
This time, the London militia showed its power again. They formed four teams and, together with the parliamentary army led by Essex, crossed the hilly areas of the west and lifted the siege of Gloucester by the royal army in early September. Then, the parliamentary army and the London militia returned to rescue London. On September 20, they fought a fierce battle with the royal army in Newbury, defeating the royal army's attack and turning London into danger again.
Nevertheless, by the end of 1643, the royal army controlled the five northern counties, the western counties and Wales, as well as the central Oxfordshire and Berkshire, occupying almost 3/5 of the country.
The reason why the Parliamentary Army suffered many defeats in the early stages of the Civil War was both political and military.
From a political point of view, it was mainly due to the fact that the Presbyterians who controlled the leadership of the parliament were wavering in compromise and were unwilling to completely break with the king. They were content with their vested interests and attempted to force the king to compromise and make concessions through war, without any intention of overthrowing the royal power. Essex, the commander of the parliamentary army, and others were passive and lazy in fighting, just wanting to show their military power and wait for the king's concession.
From a military point of view, due to lack of training, the parliamentary army has a large number but poor military quality; while the main cavalry force of the royal army is mostly composed of nobles, knights and their servants with rich combat experience, and they are good at fighting. . However, most of the generals of the parliamentary army were indecisive, incompetent, and they lacked the spirit of active attack and implemented a strategy of passive defense, thus putting the parliamentary army into a passive position of being beaten. When the parliamentary army suffered defeats one after another, Cromwell emerged as an outstanding general.
Oliver Cromwell was born into a new aristocratic family in Huntingdonshire. He entered Parliament in 1628 and participated in the drafting of the "Great Protest" in 1641. When the Civil War broke out, he organized a cavalry unit, joined the Parliamentary Army, and participated in the Battle of Mount Aegis.
At the end of 1642, under the organization of Cromwell, the five eastern counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Essex and Hereford formed the "Eastern League",* ** Deal with Wang Jun together. Later, Lincolnshire and Huntingdonshire also joined the alliance.
By June 1643, the number of the Eastern Alliance Army reached 12,000, with Manchester as commander and Cromwell as deputy commander and commander of cavalry.
This army was mainly composed of yeoman farmers and handicraftsmen. It was highly disciplined, brave and good at fighting. It was deeply welcomed by the masses and gradually developed into the main force of the parliamentary army. While the Parliamentary army suffered repeated defeats in the north, west and southwest, the Eastern Union army won consecutive battles in Grantham, Gainsborough and Winsby in Lincolnshire from May to October 1643.
As the war entered 1644, the situation of the Parliamentary Army improved greatly. As early as September 1643, the British Parliament and the Scots signed the Holy Alliance and Covenant. The Scottish army crossed the border and invaded England in January 1644. The Earl of Leven led the Scottish army to liberate most of Yorkshire and joined forces with the Parliamentary army commanded by Ferdinand Fairfax. Meanwhile, the Eastern Confederate Army recaptured much of Lincoln County. In May, the Eastern Alliance Army joined forces with the above two armies. In June, the parliamentary army began to besiege York City, the northern fortress of the royal army.
In order to prevent the fall of York City, the "Northern Capital" of the royal army, Charles I ordered Prince Rupert to lead the royal army to rush north from Lancashire to aid York City. At the end of June, Rupert joined forces with the York City garrison commanded by Newcastle. The parliamentary troops voluntarily withdrew and retreated westward.
In early July, the first large-scale battle between the two armies since the Civil War took place at Marston Heath.
Marston Moor is located 7 miles west of York City. The moor is about 1.5 miles long from east to west. The southern edge is a wide deep ditch. There is a small highland covered with shrubs and rye to the south of the ditch. At around 9 a.m. on July 2, Rupert led his troops to a village at the eastern end of the wilderness and quickly occupied the entire wilderness. After the parliamentary army, which was retreating to the west, learned of the news, they immediately turned around and attacked. Around 14:00, the parliamentary army gathered on the small high ground south of the ditch. Both sides deployed according to the principle of infantry in the center and cavalry on the wings.
The royal army was deployed with Newcastle leading the infantry in the center, Prince Rupert leading the cavalry on the right, and Goering leading the cavalry on the left. Based on the experience of Mount Edge, Rupert deployed his troops in echelons, pushing the front to the edge of the ditch, with the main force behind to facilitate defense and counterattack. The parliamentary army had Ferdinand Fairfax leading the infantry in the center, Cromwell leading the cavalry on the left, and Thomas Fairfax leading the cavalry on the right. The royal army was in the north of the ditch, and the parliamentary army was arrayed in the south of the ditch.
It was hot summer, the weather was sultry and there were showers from time to time. Both sides waited for the other to strike first. Until after 18 o'clock, there was still no movement on the position. Rupert's army looked exhausted after nearly a month of trekking. Rupert and Newcastle both believed that there would be no fighting that day and were ready to go back to the rear to eat and rest.
However, just as Rupert and Newcastle were preparing to spend a peaceful night, at about 19 o'clock, the left-wing cavalry of the Parliamentary Army shouted: "The heavenly soldiers are coming! The heavenly soldiers are coming!" and rushed down first. On the high ground, attack the enemy directly. Then, the infantry in the center and the cavalry on the right also rushed towards the enemy position. Cromwell commanded the left-wing cavalry to cross the deep ditch and quickly destroyed the first line of the royal army's cavalry. Subsequently, Leslie's Scots cavalry entered the battle and overwhelmed Rupert's 2nd line of cavalry. Rupert himself was chased by the Scots cavalry and fled towards York City, finally saving his life.
The battle lasted for about an hour and a half, and the left wing of the parliamentary army had won the victory. But at the same time, the parliamentary army's center infantry and right-wing cavalry were fiercely counterattacked by Newcastle's royal infantry and the royal cavalry led by Goering. Under the counterattack of the Royal Army, the infantry of the Parliamentary Army retreated, and finally retreated behind the small high ground. Its right side was attacked by Goering's cavalry, and was in a bad situation. At this critical moment, Cromwell ordered Leslie's troops to pursue Rupert's remnants. Cromwell himself led the cavalry to detour behind Goring and launched an attack from north to south, defeating Goring's cavalry in one fell swoop. Subsequently, Cromwell concentrated his forces to attack Newcastle's royal infantry wedged in the center of the Parliamentary army's position, and won a complete victory.
At about 22 o'clock, the battle ended. In this battle, the parliamentary army invested 27,000 troops, including 7,000 cavalry; the royal army invested 18,000 troops, including 7,000 cavalry. As a result, the king's army suffered 3,000 to 4,000 deaths, 1,500 prisoners, and a large amount of supplies lost. On July 16, the parliamentary army took advantage of the victory and occupied York City. Through the Battle of Marston Moor, the northern stronghold of the Royal Army was destroyed. The Parliamentary Army reversed the situation of repeated defeats and took the strategic initiative from then on. This battle was not only a turning point in the English Civil War, but also a turning point in Cromwell's life. Cromwell was decisive in the battle, made bold detours, and cleverly maneuvered his troops, which played a decisive role in winning the battle. Cromwell's troops became known throughout the country as the "Cavalry".
After the Battle of Marston Moor, the situation was very favorable to the Parliamentary army. The parliamentary army took advantage of the victory and liberated the northern region. The morale of the royal army was low, its strength was weak, and it was in a critical situation. However, Essex, Manchester and others who held the leadership of the parliamentary army were incompetent and ineffective in fighting, which gave the royal army a chance to breathe.
From August to September 1644, Essex was ordered to fight in the southwest. As he advanced alone, he was surrounded by the royal army in Cornwall. His infantry was wiped out and he himself escaped by sea. On October 27 of the same year, the king led an army to attack Newbury. Cromwell and others led an army to severely attack the two wings of the king's army. However, Manchester, who was in the middle, refused to release the canou, allowing the king to safely evacuate the battlefield and return to Oxford. Two weeks later the king regrouped and attacked Newbury again. This time, Manchester refused to cooperate in attacking the king's army, causing the king to retreat calmly.
The general public is very dissatisfied with the main leaders of the Parliamentary Army, Essex and Manchester, who have repeatedly failed in battles and missed opportunities. The independent officers headed by Cromwell protested against the Presbyterian generals' control of military power and ineffective combat. At the parliamentary military meeting held at Castle Donnington on November 10, 1644, Cromwell fiercely criticized the actions of Manchester and others. He said that the reason why the parliamentary army fell into passivity "is entirely due to the earl of Manchester. Since the Battle of Marston, he has been afraid of winning the battle. He is afraid of a decisive victory." In this regard, Manchester defended: "If we defeat the king 99 times, he will still be the king, and after him, his descendants will still be kings. But if the king defeats us even once, we will all be hanged and our descendants will become slaves. ."
On November 23, Cromwell made a report to Parliament on this issue. In the report, he sharply attacked Manchester for his mistakes and called him "the sinner responsible for the defeat of the Parliamentary army". At the same time, Manchester accused Cromwell of disobeying orders and attempting to rebel. Parliament debated the issue, with Presbyterians sympathetic to Manchester and Independents supporting Cromwell. Later, under the strong demands of Cromwell and other independent MPs and the pressure of the broad masses of the people, Parliament was forced to decide to reorganize the army.
On December 19, 1644, the House of Commons first passed the "Self-Restraint Act", which stipulated that members of Parliament were not allowed to hold military positions. As a result, Essex, Manchester and others were forced to surrender military power. In January 1645, the House of Commons passed the "New Model Army Act", which stipulated the establishment of a new model army with a strength of 22,000, of which cavalry accounted for about 1/3; it was determined that 45,000 pounds would be allocated monthly from the national budget. for military supplies; appointed Thomas Fairfax as commander-in-chief to command the entire army; the entire army implemented uniform uniforms, uniform disciplines, and unified organization; in order to ensure sufficient soldiers, it was decided to implement the principle of forced recruitment, etc. . Both bills were subsequently approved by the Upper House.
As a member of Parliament, Cromwell should have resigned from the army, but at the insistence of the commander-in-chief Thomas Fairfax, Parliament agreed to appoint him deputy commander-in-chief and commander of the cavalry. From then on, Cromwell served twice, representing Parliament in the army and the army in Parliament. The independent faction headed by him took real power in the army.
The implementation of the "New Model Army Act" is of great significance in the military history of Britain and the world. Since then, Britain has established its first regular army in history. It was modeled after Cromwell's "Cavalry Army", based on the Eastern Alliance Army, and with a large number of newly promoted outstanding officers as its backbone. It had strict discipline, high morale, unified command, and flexible tactics, becoming the core force to destroy the royal army. . After the independent faction took control of the military, they changed their past passive strategy of passive defense and waiting for battle to adopt a strategy of active attack and forcing the enemy to fight decisively. After reorganization, the strength of the parliamentary army has greatly increased, and the officers and soldiers have a strong sense of war.
In April 1645, Fairfax took the initiative and led his troops to attack Oxford, the king's base camp. In order to get out of the predicament, the king decided to break out eastward and attack London. Fairfax immediately ordered the withdrawal of the siege and followed up. On June 12, the Parliamentary Army pursued the Royal Army to Northampton County, only 8 miles away from the Royal Army's station. The next day, Cromwell arrived with his troops and met Fairfax. On June 14, the two sides launched a decisive battle near Nasby.
This is a fateful battle. The commanders-in-chief of both sides were clearly aware of this. The parliamentary army gathered 14,000 people, including 6,500 cavalry, while the royal army assembled 7,500 people, including 4,000 cavalry.
Naseby is located in the northwest of Northamptonshire. It is an ancient mountain village with seven to eight hundred residents. The baggage and supplies of the Parliamentary army were deposited in the village. About 1.5 miles north of the village, there is a small high ground, which is the position of the parliamentary army. The parliamentary army was arrayed in the north on the small high ground. In the center was the infantry commanded by Fairfax, divided into two lines; the cavalry was placed on the left and right wings, with Cromwell on the right and Elton on the left. There are also 1,000 dragoons on the extreme left. The king's army was arrayed facing the south, with the infantry commanded by the king himself in the center, the Yorkshire cavalry commanded by Langdale on the left, and the cavalry commanded by Rupert and Morris on the right. There is a small grassland between the two armies.
In the early morning of the 14th, in order to induce the royal army to fight quickly, the Parliamentary army retreated slightly from the top of the high ground based on Cromwell's suggestion. Prince Rupert personally came to the forward reconnaissance and found that the Parliamentary troops were retreating. In order to prevent the parliamentary army from "escaping", the royal army was ordered to attack quickly. At 10:30, Wang Jun launched a full-scale attack. Rupert led his cavalry directly towards Elton's cavalry position. Elton led his troops to fight back, but unfortunately he himself was seriously injured in the shoulder and leg. For a time, he fell into the hands of the king's army, and the team was in chaos. But Rupert fell back on his old habit. He pursued Elton's cavalry all the way to the village of Naseby, trying to seize the baggage and supplies of the Parliamentary Army. Unexpectedly, the baggage and supplies of the Parliamentary Army were protected by artillery. Rupert wasted precious time trying to capture the village.
At the same time, Cromwell commanded the right-wing cavalry of the Parliamentary Army to rush from the high ground towards Langdale's cavalry who was climbing the slope with lightning speed. Fairfax's infantry also came into contact with the infantry commanded by the king himself. Cromwell's cavalry charged into the enemy formation, slashing and killing, and routed Langdale's cavalry. However, the royal infantry launched a fierce attack on Fairfax's center infantry. Fairfax held the battle flag high and led his troops to resist desperately. The royal army's offensive was too fierce, and the parliamentary infantry, many of which lacked combat experience, began to retreat. At this critical moment, Cromwell, except for leaving one regiment to continue to monitor Langdale's remnant, concentrated the rest of the cavalry to rush towards the side and rear of the royal infantry. The infantry of the royal army was attacked from both front and rear. They were immediately in chaos and quickly collapsed. After Rupert captured the village of Nasby, he hurried back to the battlefield and found that the royal army had been routed. After reuniting with the king, he gathered the remaining troops and attempted to fight again. However, the parliamentary army rushed over overwhelmingly, and the royal officers and soldiers were so frightened that they fled for their lives. The king fled towards Leicester with about 2,000 cavalry. In this battle, the royal army suffered more than 5,000 casualties and prisoners, including more than 500 officers. All guns, munitions, baggage, 100 military flags (including the king's own flag), as well as the king's personal letters and official documents fell into the hands of the parliamentary army. In the three-hour battle, the main force of the royal army suffered a devastating blow. From then on, Wang Jun failed to recover.
After the Battle of Naseby, the Parliamentary Army continued to pursue the remnants of the Royal Army. Bristol was recaptured in September 1645. By the first half of 1646, 50 fortresses occupied by the royal army had surrendered to the parliamentary army. On June 24, 1646, the parliamentary army captured Oxford, the base camp of the royal army. Prior to this, King Charles I fled to Gorham, where the Scottish army was stationed, and was placed under house arrest by Lord Leven. In February of the following year, the king was extradited by the Scots to the English Parliament and imprisoned in Hemby Castle near Naseby. On March 16, 1647, the parliamentary army captured the last stronghold of the royal army in Wales, Harlech Castle. At this point, the first civil war ended with Parliament's victory.